Реферат: Династия Плантагенетов в истории Англии

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">ИНСТИТУТ ИНОСТРАННЫХЯЗЫКОВ

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">ФАКУЛЬТЕТ “ЯЗЫКИ ИКУЛЬТУРЫ”

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

КУРСОВАЯ РАБОТА

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">НА ТЕМУ:

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

“ДинастияПлантагенетов в истории Англии”

                                                                  

Студент 301а/и группы

ПетроваЮ.А.

Научныйруководитель

ФроловаИ.Г.

МОСКВА-2002

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">Institute of foreign Languages

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">Faculty “ Languages and Cultures”

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">

COURSEPAPER

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">

«The Plantagenet Dynasty in the History

 of GreatBritain”

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">

                                                                  

Student 301 a/i group

Petrova J.

Scientific supervisor

Frolova I.G.

Moscow-2002

Contents

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">Introduction                                                                  

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">4-5

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">Part I. The early Plantagenets ( Angeving kings)         

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">6-16

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-fareast-font-family:«Bookman Old Style»; mso-bidi-font-family:«Bookman Old Style»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">1.<span Times New Roman""> 

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">Henry II                                                                7-11

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-fareast-font-family:«Bookman Old Style»; mso-bidi-font-family:«Bookman Old Style»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">2.<span Times New Roman""> 

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">Richard ICoeur de Lion                                       12-13

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-fareast-font-family:«Bookman Old Style»; mso-bidi-font-family:«Bookman Old Style»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">3.<span Times New Roman""> 

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">John Lackland                                                     14-16

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">Part II. The last Plantagenets                                               

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">17-30

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-fareast-font-family:«Bookman Old Style»; mso-bidi-font-family:«Bookman Old Style»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">1.<span Times New Roman""> 

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">Henry III                                                               17-18

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-fareast-font-family:«Bookman Old Style»; mso-bidi-font-family:«Bookman Old Style»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">2.<span Times New Roman""> 

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">Edward I                                                              19-20

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-fareast-font-family:«Bookman Old Style»; mso-bidi-font-family:«Bookman Old Style»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">3.<span Times New Roman""> 

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">Edward II                                                             21-22

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-fareast-font-family:«Bookman Old Style»; mso-bidi-font-family:«Bookman Old Style»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">4.<span Times New Roman""> 

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">Edward III                                                            23-24

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-fareast-font-family:«Bookman Old Style»; mso-bidi-font-family:«Bookman Old Style»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">5.<span Times New Roman""> 

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">Richard  II                                                            25-30

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">Conclusion                                                                      31-33

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">Bibliography                                                                    34-35

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">References                                                                       36-38

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-fareast-font-family:«Times New Roman»; mso-bidi-font-family:«Times New Roman»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language: RU;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">INTRODUCTION

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">TheUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a monarchy, nowParliamentary and once an absolute one. That’s why the history of the countryclosely connected with the history of Royal dynasties.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">Speakingabout royal dynasties in England we should take in mind the fact, that thefirst one appeared in the country with the Norman invasion in 1066. In theancient time after Anglo-Saxon invasion the country consisted of small kingdomseach ruled by its own king. Their representatives (Chieftains of the kingdoms)–the Witan – chose king of England (for example Edward the Confessor). It wasWilliam the Conqueror, who began the first dynasty – House of Normandy. WilliamI the Conqueror –Duke of Normandy (1035-1087) invaded England, defeated and killed his rival Harold at the Battle ofHastings and became King of England. With the coronation of William the newperiod in history of England began. England turned into a centralizes, strongfeudal monarchy. The period of small kingdoms ended and started the Era ofAbsolute Monarchy. William was Duke of Normandy and at the same time the Kingof England. He controlled two large areas: Normandy – inherited from his fatherand England – he  won it. Both areas werehis personal possession. To William the only difference was that in France hehad a King above him and he had to serve him. In England he had nobody abovehim. Nobody could say who he was – an Englishman or a Frenchman. The NormanConquest of England was completed by 1072 aided by the establishment offeudalism under which his followers were granted land in return for pledges ofservice and loyalty. As King William was noted for his efficient  harsh rule. His administration relied uponNorman and other foreign personnel especially Lanfranc Archbishop of Canterbury.In 1085 started Domesday Book. In this book there was the reflection of whathappened to England.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">The next kings were kings of Plantagenet’s dynasty.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">I have chosen the history of this dynasty as a subject for my coursepaper because, on the one hand, being a student of the English language I can’tbut be interested in the history of this country, and, on the other hand, notso much is written about the Plantagenet’s kings, among which there were suchworld-known persons as Richard-the-Lion Heart and John Lackland.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US"> 

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US"> 

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">Part I. The earlyPlantagenets (Angeving kings)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">House of Plantagenet.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">“The Plantagenetdynasty took its name form the “planta Genesta” (Latine), or broom,traditionally an emblem of the counts of Anjou. Geoffrey  is the only true Plantagenet so-called,because he wore a spring of broom-genet in his cap. It was a personal nickname,such as Henry’s “Curt-manted”. Soon this nick-name habit was to die, to bereplaced by names taken from one’s birthplace. Members of this dynastyruled  over England from 1154  till 1399. However, in conventionalhistorical usage, Henry II (son of Count Geoffrey of Anjou) and his sonsRichard I and John are Normandy termed the Angeving kings, and theirsuccessors, up to Richard II, the Plantagenets. The term Plantagenet was notused until about 1450, when Richard, Duke of York, called himself by it in orderto emphasize his royal descent from Edward III’s fifth son, Edmund ofLangley.”(1)

<span Times New Roman",«serif»">Geoffrey Plantagenet

<span Times New Roman",«serif»">Henry II

<span Times New Roman",«serif»">Richard I

John Lackland

<span Times New Roman",«serif»">Henry III

<span Times New Roman",«serif»">Edward I

<span Times New Roman",«serif»">Edward II

<span Times New Roman",«serif»">Edward III

<span Times New Roman",«serif»">Richard II

<img src="/cache/referats/14433/image001.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1032 _x0000_s1033 _x0000_s1034 _x0000_s1035 _x0000_s1036 _x0000_s1037 _x0000_s1038 _x0000_s1039 _x0000_s1040 _x0000_s1042 _x0000_s1043 _x0000_s1044 _x0000_s1045 _x0000_s1046 _x0000_s1047 _x0000_s1048 _x0000_s1049 _x0000_s1051 _x0000_s1052 _x0000_s1053 _x0000_s1054 _x0000_s1055 _x0000_s1056 _x0000_s1057"> <span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">


Henry II (1154-1189 AD)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">“Henry II, the firstPlantagenet, born in 1133, was the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count Of Anjou,and Matilda, the daughter of Henry I. Henry II, the first and the greatest of three Angevin kings of England,succeeded Stephen in 1154. Aged 21, he already possessed a reputation forrestless energy and decisive actions. He was to inherit vast lands. As theirheir to his mother and his father he held Anjou (hence Angevin), Maine, andTouraine; as the heir to his brother Geoffrey he obtained Brittany; as thehusband of Eleanor, the divorced wife of Louis VII of France, he heldAquitaine, the major part of southwestern France. Altogether his holdings inFrance were far larger than those of the French king. They have become known asthe Angevin empire, although Henry II never in fact claimed any imperial rightsor used the title of the emperor.” (2) From the beginning Henry showed himselfdetermined to assert and maintain his rights in all his lands.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">In the first decade of his reign Henry II was largely concerned withcontinental affairs, though he made sure that the forged  castles in England were destroyed. Many ofthe earldoms created in the anarchy of Stephen’s reign were allowed to lapse.Major change in England began in the mid 1160s. The Assize of Clarendon of1166., and that Northampton 10 years later, promoted public order. Juries wereused to provide evidence of what crimes had been committed and to bringaccusations. New forms of legal actions were introduced, notably the so-calledprossessory assizes, which determined who had the right to immediate possessionof land, not who had the best fundamental right. That could be decided by thegrand assize, by means of which a jury of 12 knights would decide the case. Theuse of standardized forms of edict greatly simplified judicial administration.“Returnable” edicts, which had to be sent back by the head to the centraladministration, enabled the crown to check that its instruction were obeyed. Anincreasing number of cases came before royal court rather than private feudalcourts. Henry I’s practice of sending out itinerant justices was extended andsystematized. In 1170 a major inquiry into local administration, the Inquest ofSheriffs, was held, and many sheriffs were dismissed.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">        There were importantchanges to the military system. In 1166 the tenants in chief commandment todisclose the number of knights enfeoffed on their lands so that Henry couldtake proper financial advantage of changes that had taken place since hisgrandfather’s days. Scutage (tax which dismissed of military service) was animportant source of funds, and Henry preferred scutage to service becausemercenaries were more efficient than feudal contingents. In the Assize of Armsof 1181 Henry determined the arms and equipment appropriate to every free man,based on his income from land. This measure, which could be seen as a revivalof the principles of the Anglo-Saxon fyrd, was intended to provide for a localmilitia, which could be used against invasion, rebellion, or for peacekeeping.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">“Henry attempted to restore the close relationship between Church andState that had existed under the Norman kings. His first move was the appointmentin 1162 of Thomas Becket as archbishop of Canterbury. Henry assumed thatBecket, who had served efficiently as chancellor since 1155 and been a closecompanion to him, would continue to do so as archbishop. Becket, however,disappointed him. Once appointed archbishop, he became a militant defender ofChurch against royal encroachment and a champion of the papal ideology ofecclesiastical supremacy over the lay world. The struggle between Henry andBecket reached a crisis at the Council of Clarendon in 1164. In theconstitution of Clarendon Henry tried to set down in writing the ancientcustoms of the land. The most controversial issue proved to be that of jurisdictionover “criminous clerks” (clerics who had committed crimes); the king demandedthat such men should, after trial in church courts, be sent for punishment inroyal courts.” (3)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">        “Becket initially acceptedthe Constitution but would not set his seal to it. Shortly thereafter, however,he suspended himself from office for the sin of yielding  to the royal will in the matter. Although hefailed to obtain full papal support at this stage, Alexander III ultimatelycame to his aid over the Constitutions. Later in 1164 Becket was charged withpeculation of royal funds when chancellor. After Becket had taken flight forFrance, the king confiscated the revenues of his province, exiled his friends,and confiscated their revenues. In 1170 Henry had his eldest son crowned kingby the archbishop of York, not Canterbury, as was traditional. Becket, inexile, appealed to Rome and excommunicated the clergy who had taken part in theceremony. A reconciliation between Becket and Henry at the end of the same yearsettled none of the points at issue.” (4) When Becket returned to England, hetook further measures against the clergy who had taken part in the coronation.In Normandy the enraged king, hearing the news, burst out with the fatefulwords that incited four of his knights to take ship for England and murder the archbishop of Canterbury Cathedral.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">        Almost overnight the martyred Thomasbecame a saint in the eyes of the people. Henry repudiated responsibility forthe murder and reconciled himself with the church. But despite various royalpromises to abolish customs injurious to the church, royal control of thechurch was  little affected. Henceforthcriminous clerks were to be tried in church courts, save for offenses againstthe forest laws. Disputes over ecclesiastical patronage and church lands thatwere held on the same terms as lay estates were, however, to come under royal jurisdiction.Finally Henry did penance at Canterbury, allowing the monks to scourge him. Butwith Becket out of the way, it proved possible to negotiate most of the pointsat issue between church and state. The martyred archbishop, however, was toprove a potent example for future prelates.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">Rebellion of Henry’s sons and Eleanor  of Aquitaine.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">Henry’s sons,urged on by their mother  and by acoalition of Henry’s enemies, raised a rebellion throughout his domains in1173. King William I the Lion of Scotland joined the rebel coalition andinvaded the north of England. Lack of cooperation among the rebels, however,enabled Henry to defeat them one at a time with a mercenary army. The Scottishking was taken prisoner at Alnwick. Queen Eleanor was retired to politeimprisonment for the rest of Henry’s life. The king’s sons and the baronialrebels were treated with leniency, but many baronial castles were destroyedfollowing the rising. “A brief period of amity between Henry and Louis ofFrance followed, and the years between 1175 and 1182 marked  the zenith of Henry’s prestige and power.”(5) In 1183 the younger Henry again tried to organize opposition to his father,but he died in June of the year. Henry spent the last years of his life lockedin combat with the new French king, Philip II Augustus, with whom his sonRichard  had entered into an alliance.Even his youngest son, John, deserted him in the end. In 1189 Henry died abroken man, disappointed and defeated by his sons and by the French king.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;letter-spacing:0pt">RICHARD I, COEUR de LION (1189-99 AD)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">Henry II wassucceeded by his son Richard I, nicknamed the Lion Heart. Richard was born in1157, and spent much of his youth in his mother’s court at Poitiers.  “Richard, a renowned and skillful warrior,was manly interested in the Crusade to recover Jerusalem and in the struggle tomaintain his French holdings against Philip Augustus.” (6) He spent only aboutsix mouths in England during his reign. “During his frequent absences he left acommittee in charge of the realm. The chancellor William Longchamp, bishop ofEly, dominated the early part of the reign until forced into exile  by baronial rebellion in 1191. Walter ofCoutances, archbishop of Rouen, succeeded Longchamp, but the most important andabled of Richard’s ministers was Hubert Walter, archbishop of Canterbury,justicial from 1193 to 1198, and chancellor from 1199 to 1205. With the king'smother, Eleanor, he put down a revolt by Richard’s brother John in 1193 withstrong and effective measures. But when Richard returned from abroad, heforgave John and promised him the succession.” (7)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">        “This reign saw some important  innovations in taxation and military organization.Warfare was expensive, and in addition Richard was captured  on his return from the Crusade by Leopold Vof Austria and held for a high ransom of 150 000 marks. Various methods ofraising money were tried: an aid or scutage; tax on plow lands; a general tax of a fourth of revenues and chattels(this was a development of the so-called Saladin Tithe raised earlier for theCrusade); and a seizure of the wool crop of Cistercian and Gilbertine houses.The ransom, although never paid in full, caused Richard’s government to becomehighly unpopular.” (8) Richard also faced some unwillingness on the part of hisEnglish subjects to serve in France. A plan to raise a force of 300 knights whowould serve for a whole year met with opposition led by the bishops of Lincolnand Salisbury. Richard was, however, remarkably successful in mastering theresources, financial and human, of his kingdom in support of his wars. It canalso be argued  that his demands onEngland weakened that realm unduly and that Richard left his successor a verydifficult legacy.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»"><span Bookman Old Style",«serif»"><span Bookman Old Style",«serif»"><span Bookman Old Style",«serif»"><span Bookman Old Style",«serif»"><span Bookman Old Style",«serif»"><span Bookman Old Style",«serif»"><span Bookman Old Style",«serif»"><span Bookman Old Style",«serif»"><span Bookman Old Style",«serif»"><span Bookman Old Style",«serif»"><span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">JohnLackland (1199-1216 AD)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">Richard, mortally wounded at a siege in France in1199, was succeeded by his brother John, one of the most detested of Englishkings. John was born on Christmas Eve 1167, Henry II’s youngest son. John’sreign was characterized by failure. Yet, while he must bear a heavyresponsibility for his misfortunes, it is only fair to recognize that heinherited the resentment that had  builtup against his brother and father. Also while his reign ended  in disaster, some of his financial andmilitary measures anticipated positive development in Edward I’s reign.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">Lossof French possessions.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»"> “John had nothing like the military ability orreputation of his brother. He could win a battle in a fit of energy, only tolose his advantage in a spell of indolence. After repudiating his first wife, Isabella of Gloucestor,  John married the fiancée of Hugh IXthe Brown of the Lusignan family, one of his vassals in Poitou. For thisoffense he was summoned  to answer toPhilip II, his feudal ovelord for his holdings in France. When John refused toattend, his land in France were declared forfeit.” (9) In the subsequent warhe succeeded in capturing his nephew Arthur of Brittany, whom many in Anjou andelsewhere regarded as Richard I’s rightful heir. Arthur died under mysteriousand suspicious circumstances. But once the great castle of Chateau Gaillard,Richard I’s pride and joy, had fallen in March 1204, the collapse of Normandyfollowed swiftly. “By 1206 all that was left of the inheritance of the Norman kings was the Channel Islands. John, however,was determined to recover his losses.”(10)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">        Revolt ofthe barons and Magna Carta.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">For 200 years of ruling ofNorman kings the country was ruled over on such principles: King took moneyfrom barons, especially for wars. Those who refused to pay were arrested andkept in prison and they could not defend themselves. Their children or theirrelatives had to pay for them.  The endof such situation came at reign of John Lackland. He was very unpopular withhis barons. In 1215 John called on for his barons to fight for him in the waragainst Normandy and pay money for it. The barons, no longer trusting Johnrefused to pay and there began a revolt. Barons gazed much to London and werejoined by London merchants.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">        “On June 15, 1215 the rebellion baronsmet John at Rennemede on the Themes. The King was presented with a documentknown as the Articles of the Barons, on the basis of which Magna Carta wasdrawn up. Magna Carta became the symbol of political freedom. It promised twomain things:

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-fareast-font-family:«Bookman Old Style»; mso-bidi-font-family:«Bookman Old Style»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">1.<span Times New Roman""> 

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">All “free man”protection of his officials

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-fareast-font-family:«Bookman Old Style»; mso-bidi-font-family:«Bookman Old Style»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">2.<span Times New Roman""> 

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">The right toafair and legal trial

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">It was the first official document when this principle was written down.It was very important for England. Magna Carta was always used by barons toprotect themselves from a powerful king.” (11)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">But we should say that Magna Carta gave no real  freedom to the majority of people in England(only 1/3 of population were free men). Nobles did not allow John and hissuccessors to forget this charter. Every king had to recognize the Magna Carta.This document was the beginning of limiting the prerogatives of crown and onthe other hand by limiting king’s power Magna Carta restricted arbitrary actionof barons towards the knights. Magna Carta marked a clear stage in the collapseof the English feudalism.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">“After king’s signing the document barons established a committee of 24barons to make sure that John  kept hispromise. This committee was a beginning of English Parliament.”(12)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">From the very beginning Magna Carta was a failure, for it was no morethan a stage in ineffective negotiations to prevent civil war. John wasreleased by the pope from his obligations under it. The document was, however,reissued with some changes under John’s son, with papal approval. John himselfdied in October 1216, with the civil war still at an inconclusive stage.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">“Summing up the events of the late 12th century and the early13th century historians describe as “Plantagenet spring after a grimNorman winter”. The symbol of this spring is the century of new Gothic Style.One of the best example of Gothic architecture is Salisbury Cathedral. Also itis a century of forming Parliament. The century of growing literacy which isclosely connected with 12th century cultural movement, which iscalled Renaissance. In England Renaissance was a revolution in thoughts, ideasand learning. In England there began grammar schools. But all of them taughtLatin. In the end of the 12th century in England appeared twoschools of higher learning – Oxford and Cambridge. By 1220 this universitiesbecame the intellectual leaders of the century.”(13)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:blue;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">       

Part II. The last Plantagenets

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">HENRYIII (1216-1272 AD)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;font-weight:normal">“Henry III was the first son ofJohn and Isabella of Angouleme. Was born in 1207.  At the age of nine when he was crowned,Henry’s early reign featured two regents: William the Marshall governed untilhis death in 1219, and Hugh de Burgh until Henry came to the throne in 1232.His education was provided by Peter des Roche, Bishop of Winchester. Henry IIImarried Eleanor of Province in 1236, who bore him four sons and two daughters.”(14)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;font-weight:normal">        “Henry inherited a troubled kingdom: London and most of thesoutheast was in the hands of the French Dauphin Louis and the northern regionswere under control of rebellious barons – only the midland and southwest wereloyal  to the boy king. The barons,however, soon sided with Henry (their quarrel was with his father, not him),and the old Marshall expelled the French Dauphin from English soil by 1217.”(15)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">    “Henry was a cultivated man,but a lousy politician. His court was inundated by Frenchmen and Italians whocame at the behest of Eleanor, whose relations were handed important Church andstate position. His father and uncle left him an impoverished kingdom. Henryfinanced costly fruitless wars with extortionate taxation. Inept diplomacy andfailed war led Henry to sell his hereditary claims to all the Angevinpossessions in France, but to save Gascony (which was held as a fief of theFrench crown) and Calais.”(16) “Henry’s failures incited hostilities among agroup of barons led by his brother in law, Simon de Montfort. Henry was forcedto agree to a wide ranging plan of reforms, the so called “Provisions ofOxford”. His later papal absolution from adhering to the Provisions prompted abaronial revolt in 1263, and Henry was summoned to the first Parliament, in1265 – Parliament (from the French word “parleman” – meeting for discussion)was summoned with “Commons” represented in it – two knights from a shire andtwo merchants of a town and it turned out to have been a real beginning of theEnglish parlamentarism.”(17) Here we should note, the main peculiarity ofEnglish Parliament, distinguishing it from most others:

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US"> <span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">it was created as a means of opposition. Not to helpthe king, but to limit his power and control him.       

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;font-weight:normal">Parliamentinsisted that a council be imposed on the king to advise on policy decisions.He was prone to the infamous Plantagenet temper, but could also be sensitiveand quite pious – ecclesiastical architecture reached its apex in Henry’sreign.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;font-weight:normal">        The old king, after an extremely long reign  of fifty-six years, died in 1272. He found nosuccess in war, but opened up English culture to the cosmopolitanism of thecontinent. Although viewed as a failure as a politician, his reign defined theEnglish monarchical position until the end of the fifteenth century: kingshiplimited by law – the repercussions of which influenced the English Civil War inthe reign of Charles I, and extended into the nineteenth century queenship ofVictoria.        

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">EdwardI, Longshanks (1272-1307)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;font-weight:normal">EdwardI, the oldest surviving son of Henry II and Eleanor of Provence, was born in1239. He was nicknamed Longshanks due to his great height and stature. Edwardmarried Eleanor of Castille in 1254, who bore him sixteen children ( seven ofwhom survived into adulthood) before her death in 1290. Edward reached a peacesettlement with Philip IV of France that resulted in his marriage to the Frenchking’s daughter Margaret, who bore him three more children.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;font-weight:normal">        “Edward I was a capable statesman, adding much to theinstitution initiated by Henry II. It 1295, his “Model Parliament” broughttogether representatives from the nobility, clergy, knights of the shires, andburgesses of the cities – the first gathering of Lords and Commons. Feudalrevenues proved inadequate in financing the burgeoning royal courts andadministrative institutions. Summoning national Parliament became the acceptedforum of gaining revenue and conducting public business. Judicial reformincluded the expansion of such courts as the King’s Bench, Common Pleas,Exchequer and the Chancery Court was established to give redress in circumstances where other courts providedon solution. Edward was pious, but resisted any increase of papal authority inEngland. Conservators of the Peace, the forerunners of Justices of the Peace,were also established as an institution.”(18)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;font-weight:normal">        Foreign policy, namely the unification of the island’s othernations, occupied much of Edward’s time. A major campaign to control Llywelynap Gruffydd of Wales began in 1277, and lasted until Liywelyn’s death in 1282.In 1301, the king’s eldest son was created Prince of Wales, a title still heldby all mail heirs to the crown. Margaret, Maid of Norway and legitimate heir tothe Scottish crown, died in 1290, leaving a disputed succession in Scotland.Edward was asked  to arbitrate betweenthirteen different claimants. John Baliol, Edward’s first choice, wasunpopular, his next choice, William Wallace, rebelled against England until hiscapture and execution in 1305. Robert Bruce seized the Scottish throne in 1306,later to become a source of consternation to Edward II.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;font-weight:normal">        Edward died en rout to yet another Scottish campaign in 1307.His character found accurate evaluation by Sir Richard Baker, in A Chronicle ofthe kings of England: “He had in him the two wisdoms, not often found in any,single. Both together, seldom or never: an ability of judgement in himself,and  a readiness to hear the judgment ofothers. He was not easily provoked into passion, but once in passion, noteasily appeared, as was seen by his dealing with the Scots; towards whom heshowed at first patience, and at last severity. If he was censured for his manytaxations, he may be justified by his well bestowing them; for never princelaid out his money to more honour of himself, or good of his kingdom.”(19)        

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;font-weight:normal">       

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">EdwardII (1307-1327 AD)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">Edward II the son of Eleanor of Castille and Edward I, was born in 1284.He married Isabella, daughter of Philip IV of France, in 1308. Eleanor bore himtwo sons and two daughters.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">        “Edward was as much of a failure as aking as his father was a success. He loved money and other rewards upon hismail favourites, raising the ire of the nobility. The most notable was PiersGaveston, his homosexual lover. On the day of Edward’s marriage

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">у<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US"> to Isabella, Edward preferred the couch of Gavestonto that of his new wife. Gaveston was exiled and eventually murdered byEdward’s father for his licentious conduct with the king. Edward’s means ofmaintaining power was based on the noose and the block – 28 knights and baronswere executed for rebelling against the decadent king.” (20)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">        Edward faired no better as a solder. Therebellions of the barons opened the way for Robert Bruce to grasp much ofScotland. Bruce’s victory over English forces at the battle of Bannockburn, in1314, ensured Scottish independence until the union of England and Scotland in1707.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">        In 1324 the war broke out with France, prompting Edward tosent Isabella and their son Edward (later became Edward III) to negotiate with her brother and French king,Charles IV. “Isabella fell into an open romance with Roger Mortimer, one of theEdward’s disaffected barons. The rebellious couple invaded England in 1327,capturing and imprisoning Edward.  Theking was deposed, replaced by his son, Edward III.”(21)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">       

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;font-style:normal">Edward II was murdered inSeptember 1327 at Berkley castle, by a red-hot iron inserted through hissphincter into<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; font-style:normal"> <span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;font-style: normal">his<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; font-style:normal"> <span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;font-style: normal">bowels. Comparison of Edward I and Edward II was beautifully describedby Sir Richard Baker, in reference to Edward I in A Chronicle of the Kings ofEngland “His great unfortunate  was inhis greatest blessing, for four of his sons which he had by his Queen Eleanor,three of them died in his own lifetime, who were worthy to have outlived him,and the fourth outlived him, who was worthy never to have been born.” ( 22)  A strong indictment of a weak king.”(23)      

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">    

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

Edward III (1327-1377)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;font-style:normal">EdwardIII, the eldest son of Edward II and Isabella of France, was born in 1312. Hisyouth was spent in his mother’s court, until he was crowned at the age of 14,in 1327. Edward was dominated by his mother and her lover, Roger Mortimer,until 1330, wen Mortimer was executed and Isabella was exiled from court.Philippa of Hainault married Edward in 1328 and bore him many children.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">        The Hundred Years’ War occupied thelargest part of Edward’s reign. It began in 1338-1453. The war was carriedduring the reign of 5 English kings. Edward III and Edward Baliol defeatedDavid II of Scotland, and drove him into exile in 1333. The French cooperationwith the Scots, French aggression in Gascony, and Edward’s claim to the throneof France (through his mother Isabella, who was the sister of the king; theCapetiance failed to produce a mail heir) led to the outbreak of War. “The seabattle of Sluys (1340) gave England control of the Channel, and battle at Crecy(1346), Calais (1347), and Poitiers (1356) demonstrated English supremacy onthe land. Edward, the Black Prince and eldest son of Edward III, excelledduring this first phase of the war.”(24)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">        Throughout 1348-1350 the epidemic of aplague so called “The Black Death” swept across England and northern Europe,removing as much as half the population. This plague reached every part ofEngland. Few than one of ten who caught the plague could survive it. If inEurope 1/3 of  population died within acentury, in England 1/3 of population died during two years. The wholevillages disappeared. This plague continued till it died out itself. Englishmilitary strength weakened considerably after the plague, gradually lost somuch ground that by 1375, Edward agreed to the Treaty of Bruges, which onlyleft England Calais, Bordeaux, and Bayonne.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">        Domestically, England saw many changesduring Edward’s reign. Parliament was divided into two Houses – Lords andCommons – and met regularly to finance the war. Treason was defined by statutefor the first time (1352). In 1361 the office of Justice of the Peace wascreated. Philippa died in 1369 and the last years of Edward’s reign mirroredthe first; he was once again dominated by a woman, his mistress, Alice Perrers.Alice preferred one of Edward’s other sons, John of Gaunt, over the BlackPrince, which caused political conflict in Edward’s last years.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">        Edward the Black Prince died one yearbefore his father. Rafael Holinshed intimated that Edward spent his last yearin grief and remorse, believing the death of his son was a punishment forusurping his father’s crown. In Chronicles of England, Holinshed wrote: “Butfinally the thing that most grieved him, was the loss of that most noblegentleman, his dear son Prince Edward…. But this and other mishaps that chancedto him now in his old years, might seem to come to pass for a revenge of hisdisobedience showed to his in usurping against him….” (25)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">        There is one more point about Edward’sreign, concerning the English language. Edward had forbidden speaking French inhis army, and by the end of the 14th century English once againbegan being used instead of French by ruling literate class.     

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

Richard II (1377-99)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">Richard II’s reign was fraught with crisis – economic, social,political, and constitutional. He was 10 years old when his grandfather died,and the first problem the country faced was having to deal with his monitoring.A “constitutional council” was set up to “govern the king and his kingdom”.Although John of Gaunt was still the dominant figure in the royal family, neitherhe no his brothers were included.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">The peasant’s revolt.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">“(1381)Financing the increasingly expensive and unsuccessful war with France was amajor preoccupation. At the end of Edward III’s reign a new device, a poll taxof four pence a head, had been introduced. A similar but graduated tax followedin 1379, and in 1380 another set at one shilling a head was granted. It provedinequitable and impractical, and when the government tried to speed up  collection in the spring of 1381 a popular rebellion– the Peasants’ Revolt – ensued. Although the pool tax was the spark that setit off, there were also deeper causes related to changes in the economy and topolitical developments.”(26) The government in practical, engendered hostilityto the legal system by its policies of expanding the power of the justices ofthe peace at the expense of local and monorail courts. In addition, popularpoor preachers spread subversive ideas with slogans such as: “When Adam delvedand Eve span/ Who was then the gentleman?” (27) The Peasants’ revolt began inEssex and Kent. Widespread outbreaks occurred the southeast of England, takingthe form of assault on tax collectors, attacks on landlords and their manorhouses, destruction of documentary evidence of villein status, and attacks onlawyers. Attacks on religious houses, such as that at St. Albans, wereparticularly severe, perhaps because they had been among the most conservativeof landlords in commuting labour services.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">        The men of Essex and Kent moved toLondon to attack the king’s councilors. Admitted to the city by sympathizers,they attacked John of Gaunt’s place of the Savoy as well as the Fleet prison.On June 14 the young king made them various promises at Mile End; on the same daythey broke into the Tower and killed Sudbury, the chancellor, Hales, thetreasure and other officials. On the next day Richard met the rebels again atSmithfield, and their main leader, Wat Tyler, presented their demands. Butduring the negotiations Tyler was attacked and slain by the mayor of London.The young king rode forward and reassured the rebels, asking them to follow himto Clerkenwell. This proved to be a turning point, and the rebels, theirsuppliers exhausted, began to make their way home. “Richard went back on hispromises he had made saying, “Villeins you are and villeins you shallremain.”(28) In October Parliament confirmed the king’s revocation of chartersbut demanded amnesty save for a few special offenders.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">        “The events of the Peasants’ Revolt mayhave given Richard an exalted idea of his own powers and prerogative as aresult of his success at Smithfield, but for the rebels the gains of the risingamounted to no more than the abolition of the poll taxes.”(29) Improvement inthe social position of the peasantry did occur, but not so mach as aconsequence of the revolt as of changes in the economy that would have occurredanyhow.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">John Wycliffe.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US"> “Religious unrest was another  subversive factor under Richard II. Englandhad been virtually free from heresy until John Wycliffe, a priest and an Oxfordscholar, began his career as a religious reformer with two treaties in 1375 –76. He argued that the exercise of lordship depended on grace and that therefore, a sinful man had no rightto authority. Priest had even the pope himself, Wycliffe went on to argue,might not necessarily be in state of grace and thus would lack authority. Suchdoctrines appealed to anticlerical sentiments and brought Wycliffe into directconflict with the church hierarchy, although he received protection from Johnof Gaunt. The beginning of the Great Schism in 1378 gave Wycliffe freshopportunities to attack the papacy, and in a treaties of 1379 on the Eucharisthe openly denied the doctrine of transubstantiation. He was ordered  before the church court at Lambeth in 1378.In 1380 his views were condemned by a commission of theologians at Oxford, andhe was forced to leave the university. At Lutterworth he continued to write voluminouslyuntil his death.”(30)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">Political struggles and Richard’s desposition.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">Soon afterputting down the Peasants’ Revolt, Richard began to build up a court party,partly in opposition to Gaunt. A crisis was precipitated in 1386 when the kingasked Parliament for a grant to meet the French treat. Parliament responded bydemanding the dismissal of the king’s favorites, but Richard insisted that hewould not dismiss so much as a scullion in the kitchen at the request ofParliament. In the end he was forced by the impeachment of the chancellor,  Michel de la Pole, to agree to theappointment of a reforming commission. Richard withdrew from London and went ona “gyration” of the country. He called his judges before him at Shrewsbury andasked them to pronounce the actions of Parliament illegal.  An engagement at Radcot Bridge, at whichRichard’s favorite, Robert de Vere, 9th Earl of Oxford was defeatedsettled the matter of ascendancy. In the Merciless Parliament of 1388 fivelords accused the king’s friends of treason under an expansive definition ofthe crime.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">        “Richard was chastened, but he began torecover his authority as early as the autumn of 1388 at the CambridgeParliament. Declaring himself to be of age in 1389, Richard anounced that hewas taking over the government. He pardoned the Lords Appellant and ruled withsome moderation until 1394, when his queen Ann of Bohemia, died.”(31) Afterputting down a rebellion in Ireland, he was, for a time, almost popular. Hebegan to implement his personal policy once more and rebuilt a royal party withthe help of a group of young nobles. He made a 28- years truce with France andmarried the French king’s seven-year-old daughter. He built up a household offaithful servants, including the notorious Sir John Bushy, Sir William Bagot,and Sir Henry Green. “He enlisted household troops and built a wide network of“king’s knight” in the counties, distributing to them his personal budge, theWhite Hart.”(32)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">        The first sign of renewed crisis emergedin January 1397, when complaints were put forward in Parliament and theirauthor, Thomas Haxey, was adjudged a traitor. “Richard’s rule, based on fearrather then consent, became increasingly tyrannical.”(33) Three of the LordsAppellant of 1388 were arrested in July and tried in Parliament. The Earl ofArundel was executed and Warwick exiled. Gloucester, whose death was reportedto Parliament, had probably been murdered. The act of the 1388 Parliament wasrepealed. Richard was granted the customs of revenues for life, and the powerof parliament was delegated to a committee after the assembly was dissolved.Richard also built up a power base in Cheshire.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">        Events leading to Richard’s downfallfollowed quickly. The Duke of Norfolk and Henry Bolingbroke, John of Gaunt’sson, accused each other of treason and were banished, the former for life, thelatter for 10 years. Hen Gaunt himself died early in 1399, Richard confiscatedhis estates instead of allowing his son to claim them. Richard seeminglysecure, went off to Ireland. Henry, however landed at Ravenspur in Yorkshire toclaim, as  he said, his father’s estateand the  hereditary stewardship. ThePercys, the chief lord of the north, welcomed him. Popular support waswidespread, and when Richard returned from Ireland his cause was lost.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">        “The precise course of events is hard toreconstruct., in view of subsequent alteration to the records. A Parliament wascalled in Richard’s name, but before it was fully assembled at the end ofSeptember, its members were presented with Richard’s alleged abdication andHenry’s claim to the throne as legitimate descendant of Henry III as well as byright of conquest.”(34) Thirty-tree articles of deposition were set forthagainst Richard, and his abdication and deposition were duly accepted. Richarddied at Pontefract Castle, either of self-starvation or by smothering. Thusended the last attempt of a medieval king to exercise arbitrary power. “Whetheror not Richard had been motivated by new theories about the nature of monarchy,as some have claimed, he had failed in the practical measures necessary tosustain his power. He had tried to rule through fear and mistrust in his finalyears, but he had neither gained sufficient support among the magnates by meansof patronage nor created a popular basis of support in the shires and in 1399Richard was disposed and he abdicated to the

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">у<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US"> favour ofHenry Lancaster and so the dynasty of Plantagenets ended.”(35)

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;mso-ansi-langu

еще рефераты
Еще работы по иностранным языкам. истории