Реферат: English topics
Topic N1 «The BritishParliament»
TheBritish Parliament is the oldest in the world. It originated
in th 12th century as Witenagemot, the body of wise councellers
whom theKing needed to consult pursuing his policy. The British
Parliamentconsists of the House of Lords and the House of
Commonsand the Queen as its head. The House of Commons plays the
majorrole in law-making. It consists of Members of Parliament
(calledMPs for short). Each of them represents an area in
<st1:country-region w:st=«on»>England</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st=«on»>Scotland</st1:country-region>,<st1:country-region w:st=«on»>Wales</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Ireland</st1:place></st1:country-region>. MPsare elected either at a
generalelection or at a by-election following the death or
retirement.Parliamentary elections are held every 5 years and it
is thePrime Minister who decides on the exact day of the
election.The minimum voting age is 18. And the voting is taken
bysecret ballot. The election campaign lasts about 3 weeks, The
Britishparliamentary system depends on politicals parties. The
partywhich wins the majority of seats forms the goverment and
itsleader usually becomes Prime Minister. The Prime Minister
choosesabout 20 MPs from his party to become the cabinet of
ministers.Each minister is responsible for a particular area in
the goverment. The second largest party becomes the official
oppositionwith its own leader and «shadow cabinet». The leader
of theopposition is a recognized post in the House of Commons.
Theparliament and the monarch have different roles in the
govermentand they only meet together on symbolic occasions, such
ascoronation of a new monarch or the opening of the parliament.
Inreality, the House of Commons is the one of three which has
truepower. The House of Commons is made up of six hundred and
fiftyelected members, it is presided over by the speaker, a
memberacceptable to the whole house. MPs sit on two sides of the
hall,one side for the governing party and the other for the
opposition.The first 2 rows of seats are occupied by the leading
membersof both parties (called «front benches») The back benches
belongto the rank-and-life MPs. Each session of the House of
Commonslasts for 160-175 days. Parliament has intervals during
hiswork. MPs are paid for their parliamentary work and have to
attendthe sittings. As mention above, the House of Commons plays
themajor role in law making. The procedure is the following: a
proposedlaw («a bill») has to go through three stages in order
tobecome an act of parliament, these are called «readings». The
firstreading is a formality and is simply the publication of the
proposal.The second reading involves debate on the principles of
thebill, it is examination by parliamentary committy. And the
thirdreading is a report stage, when the work of the committyis
reportedon to the house. This is usually the most important
stage inthe process. When the bill passes through the House of
Commons,it is sent to the House of Lords for discussion, when
theLords agree it, the bill is taken to the Queen for royal
assent,when the Queen sings the bill, it becomes act of the
Parliamentand the Law of the Land. The House of Lords has more
than1000 members, although only about 250 take an active part in
the workin the house. Members of this Upper House are not
elected,they sit there because of their rank, the chairman of
theHouse of Lords is the Lord Chancellor. And he sits on a
specialseat, called "WoolSack" The members of theHouse of Lords
debatethe bill after it has been passed by the House of Commons.
Somechanges may be recommended and the agreement between the two
housesis reached by negotiations.
Topic N2 "<st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>US</st1:place></st1:country-region>Congress"
The <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>United States of America</st1:place></st1:country-region>is a federal republic consisting of
50 states. Each of which has its own goverment («state
goverment»).In some ways the <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>United States</st1:place></st1:country-region> is like 50 small
countries.Each state has its own governor, its own police and
its ownlaws. The present constitution was proclaimed in 1787 in
<st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Philadelphia</st1:place></st1:City>, the President is the head of thewhole country and
the goverment and "commanderingchief" of the armed forces. He
makesthe most important decisions and chooses the ministers, the
membersof his cabinet. But the President cannot do just what he
wants.The Congress must agree first. Americans choose a new
presidentevery four years. The residence of the President is the
WhiteHouse in <st1:State w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Washington</st1:place></st1:State>,the Capital city. The goverment of the
wholecountry (the Federal goverment) works from <st1:State w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Washington</st1:place></st1:State>, this
is wherethe Congress is based. The Capitol is the seat of the <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>US</st1:place></st1:country-region>
Congress.Congress is the American parliament which consists of 2
chambers.The Senate and the House of Representatives. The first
Congressmet in 1789 in <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>New York city</st1:place></st1:City>. The membership then
consistedof 22 senators and 59 representatives. Today the House
ofRepresentatives has 435 members. Elections to the house take
placeevery 2 years. There are 100 senators (2 from each state),
they areelected to serve for a period of six years, but every
twoyears elections to the senate took place when one/third of
itsmembers must be changed or re-elected. Election day is always
in themonth of November, on the first Tuesday, after the first
Monday.Americans who aren't yet 25 years old have no right to be
electedto the House of Representatives. Whose, who are under 30
can't beelected in the Senate. The main political parties in the
UnitedStates of America are the Democratic Party and the
RepubllicanParty.
Topic N3«Business Trips»
Neverbefore in the history of the world have businessmen traveled
so muchas they do today. It is not surprising because we are
livingin a world of growing international trade and expanding
economicand technical cooperation. Fascinating though it is for
tourist travelling, however, has become the most tiring of all
theoccupations for many businessmen and experts. Choosing a
comfortablehotel to stay at is, therefore, a matter of some
importance.There are plently of good hotels, motels, and guest
houses,in the world, conviently located for major business
centers.Many developing countries, such as <st1:country-region w:st=«on»>India</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Egypt</st1:place></st1:country-region>,
<st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region>, Lybia, etc have excellent hotels. Their numerous
facilitiesinclude both: large and small cocktail barber's shops
andconference halls, equipped with simultaneous, multilingual
translationsystems. There are parking areas which can accomodate
a lot ofcars. It might be useful for travellingbusinessmen and
touriststo know that tailor shops, shoe repair shops and
laundry,dry cleaning services are available for guests. People
in theoffice help guests to book train or steamer tickets and
rent acar. They are also ready to give all necessary information.
Nowadayspeople who go on business mostly travel by air as it is
thefastest means of travelling. Passengers are requested to
arrive at the airport 2 hours before departure time on
internationalflights and an hour on domestic flights as there
must be enough time to complete the necessary airport
formalities.Passengers must register their tickets, weigh in and
registerthe luggage. Most airlines have at least 2 classes of
travel:first class and economy class which is cheaper. Each
passengerof more than 2 years of age has a free luggage
allowance. Generally this limit is 20kg for economic class
passengerand 30kg for first class passenger. Excess luggage must
be paidfor except for some articles that can be carried free of
charge.Each passenger is given a boarding pass to be shown at
geparturegate and again to the stewardess when boarding the
plane.Watch the electric sign flashes when you are on board,
when the«Fasten Seat Belts» sign goes on do it promptly and also
obey the«No Smoking» signal. Do not forget your personal effects
whenleaving the plane.
Topic N4 «Customs andTraditions»
Thereare many customs and traditions in <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>England</st1:place></st1:country-region>. And I would
like totell you some of them. First tradition is called «Wrong
side ofthe bed» When people are bad tempered we say that they
musthave got out of bed on the wrong side. Originally, it was
meantquiet literally. People belive that the way they rose in
themorning affected their behaivor throughout the day.The wrong
side ofthe bed was the left side. The left always having been
linkedwith evil. Second custom is called «Blowing out the
candles»The custom of having candles on birthday cakes goes back
to theancient Greeks. Worshippers of Artemis, godess of themoon
andhunting, used to place honey cakes on the altars of her
templeson her birthday. The cakes were round like the full moon
and litwith tapers. This custom was next recorded in the middle
ageswhen German peasants lit tapers on birthday cakes, the
numberlit indicating the person's age, plus an extra one to
representthe light of life. From earliest days burning tapers
had beenendoued with mystical significance and it was belived
thatwhen blown out they had the power to grant a secret wish and
ensure ahappy year ahead. And the last tradition I would like to
tell youis called «The 5th of November» On the 5th of November
inalmost every otwn and village in <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>England</st1:place></st1:country-region> you will see fire
burning,fireworks, cracking and lighting up the sky. You will
see toosmall groups of children pulling round in a home made
cart, afigure that looks something like a man but consists of an
old suitof clothes, stuffed with straw. The children will sing:"
Remember,remember the 5th of November; Gun powder, treason and
plot".And they will ask passers-by for «a penny for the Guy» But
thechildren with «the Guy» are not likely to know who or what
day theyare celebrating. They have done this more or less every
5th ofNovember since 1605. At that time James the First was on
thethrone. He was hated with many people especialy the Roman
catholicsagainst whom many sever laws had been passed. A number
of catholics chief of whom was Robert Catesby determinedto kill
the Kingand his ministers by blowing up the house of Parliament
withgunpowder. To help them in this they got Guy Fawker, a
soldierof fortune, who would do the actual work. The day fixed
forattempt was the 5th of November, the day on which the
Parliamentwas to open. But one of the consperators had several
friendsin the parliament and he didn't want them to die. So he
wrote aletter to Lord Monteagle begging him to makesome excuse
tobe absent from parliament if he valued his life. Lord
Monteagletook the letter hurrily to the King. Guards were sent
at onceto examine the cellars of the house of Parliament. And
therethey found Guy Fawker about to fire a trail of gunpowder.
He wastortured and hanged, Catesby was killed, resisting arrest
in hisown house. In memory of that day bonfires are still
lighted,fireworks shoot across the November sky and figures of
Guy Fawker are burnt in the streets.
Topic N5 «Thomas Jefferson(1743-1826)»
ThomasJefferson one of the American President of the past was
born in <st1:State w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Virginia</st1:place></st1:State> in 1743. Whenhe was 14 years old, his father
died andthe young boy was left to choose for himself what to do.
<st1:place w:st=«on»>Jefferson</st1:place>studied literature and languages. He also studied to be
alawyer, and later he wrote many of the <st1:State w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Virginia</st1:place></st1:State> laws. One of
the lawsfor which he worked very much was a law to allow many
child togo to school free. Schools in <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>America</st1:place></st1:country-region>were only for the
childrenwhose parents were rich. When <st1:place w:st=«on»>Jefferson</st1:place> was still a
youngman he was one of those who wanted freedom from <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>England</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
His mostoutstanding archivment was as chief author of the
Declarationof <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Independence</st1:place></st1:City>,a statement of human rights and
liberties.It was read to the happy people on the 4th of July,
1776. <st1:place w:st=«on»>Jefferson</st1:place> also drew up the constitution for his state,
<st1:State w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Virginia</st1:place></st1:State>, and served as its governor. He wassent to <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>France</st1:place></st1:country-region> as
the foreign minister of the United States of America and
afterwardswas President's <st1:State w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Washington</st1:place></st1:State>secretary of state. A few
yearslater he became the country's third president, serving in
thisposition for 2 terms. The author of the Declaration of
<st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Independence</st1:place></st1:City>did another important thing for theAmerican people.
Heworked out a plan for a university where the students and
teacherscould live and work together in a village build for
them. Itwas one of the first schools to teach science. Today, it
is the <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>university</st1:PlaceType> of <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Virginia</st1:PlaceName></st1:place>. This well known man was also a
self-tought architect. He introduced the simple classical design
to <st1:country-region w:st=«on»>America</st1:country-region> when he designed the <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Virginia</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>State</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Capital</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>Building</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>.
He alsodesigned his own home, he remained the most influencial
architectof his time. Thomas Jefferson did many useful things
duringhis life time and he always thought of how to help
ordinarypeople. He was a practical and theoretical scientist
too. <st1:place w:st=«on»>Jefferson</st1:place>'s best traditions have been kept up by American
progressivepeople in their struggle for peace and democracy.
Topic N6«Pets»
TheEnglish people like animals very much. Pet: dogs, cats,
horses,ducks, canaries, chickens and other friends of men have a
muchbetter life in <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region>,than anywhere else. In <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> they
havespecial dog shops, selling food, clothes and other things
fordogs. There are dog hair-dressing saloons and dog cemetries.
TheEnglish arrange dogs' shows and organize dogs' supper parties
for winnersof dogs' competitions. They do all they can to make
animalsfeel well in their home and outside their homes too.
Therewere photographs in English newspapres of a motherduck and
heryoung family, crossing slowly the road from <st1:place w:st=«on»>Hyde Park</st1:place> to
<st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Kensington</st1:PlaceName><st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>Garden</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>. All traffic around wasstopped to let Mamma
Duck andher little ones walked quitly from one park to another.
Inrecent years the English began to show love for more exotic
animalssuch as crocodiles, elephants, tigers, cobras, camels.
Youwon't be surprised, we think, when we tell you that <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>London</st1:place></st1:City>
Airporthas a special «animal hotel». Every year thousands of
animalsarrive at <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>London</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>Airport</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>, some stay the night there;
othersstay several weeks. In one month, for example, «the hotel»
lookedafter 47000 creatures: birds, insects, fish, elephants,
mpnkeyand other animals. There are about 4000000 dogs, 6000000
cats,8000000 caged birds and lots of other animals in <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
TheEnglish people belive that they are the only nation on the
<span Courier New"; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">Earth that is really kind to its animals.
<span Courier New"; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">
Topic N7 "<st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:City w:st=«on»>Washington</st1:City>, <st1:State w:st=«on»>DC</st1:State></st1:place>"
The cityof <st1:City w:st=«on»>Washington</st1:City>, the capital of the <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>United States</st1:place></st1:country-region> of
<st1:country-region w:st=«on»>America</st1:country-region>is located in the <st1:State w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>District of Columbia</st1:place></st1:State> (DC for short)
Manypeople consider <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:City w:st=«on»>Washington</st1:City> <st1:State w:st=«on»>DC</st1:State></st1:place> to be one of the most beatiful
citiesin the world. It is filled with many parks, wide streets
andimpressive buildings. In the centre of the city, in Capitol
Park, visitors' eyes focus on the Capitol, where Congress
convenceto inect laws. Many visitors come to <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:City w:st=«on»>Washington</st1:City> <st1:State w:st=«on»>DC</st1:State></st1:place> to
see theWhite House. It is the greatest attraction for many of
them.The White House, the official residence of the President,
issituated at <st1:Street w:st=«on»><st1:address w:st=«on»>1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W.</st1:address></st1:Street> The largest room in
thisbuilding of over the hundreds room is the East Room, scene
of manystate receptions, balls and musicals. Other famous rooms
are: theGreen Room, the Blue Room, the Red Room, which are used
forafternoon teas and for receptions held before state dinners.
The BlueRoom, the most formal of these «colors» room is an
oval-shapedroom connecting the Green and the Red Rooms. On the
secondfloor, the floor with the family quarters and quests
rooms,is the Lincoln Room, which one served as an office for
president<st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Lincoln</st1:place></st1:City> buttoday serves as an honor guest room. In
thisroom Lincoln signed the emansipationproclamation of 1863.
Otherlandmarks in <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:City w:st=«on»>Washington</st1:City> <st1:State w:st=«on»>DC</st1:State></st1:place> include memorials to three
Presidents:The <st1:State w:st=«on»>Washington</st1:State> Memorial, The <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Lincoln</st1:place></st1:City> Memorial and The
<st1:place w:st=«on»>Jefferson</st1:place>Memorial; The Library of Congress, The National Gallary
of Art,The John F. Kennedy center for the Perfoming Arts. The
Capitolis in the very center of <st1:State w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Washington</st1:place></st1:State>.It is located on the
CapitolHill, the highest point in the city. The Capitol is the
highestbuilding in <st1:State w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Washington</st1:place></st1:State>.There is a law in <st1:State w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Washington</st1:place></st1:State> not
to buildbuildings higher than the Capitol. The conrer stone of
theCapitol was laid by George Washington on Sep 18th, 1793. The
Capitolis the seat of the goverment of the <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>United States</st1:place></st1:country-region> of
<st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>America</st1:place></st1:country-region>.