Реферат: British slang and its classification

--PAGE_BREAK--2.1 The origin of slang
Slang was the main reason for the development of divscriptive language in an attempt to slow down the rate of change in both spoken and written language. Latin and French were the only two languages that maintained the use of divscriptive language in the 14th century. It was not until the early 15th century that scholars began pushing for a Standard English language.
During the Middle Ages, certain writers such as Chaucer, William Caxton, and William of Malmesbury redivsented the regional differences in pronunciations and dialects. The different dialects and the different pronunciations redivsented the first meaning for the term «slang.»
However, our divsent-day meaning for slang did not begin forming until the 16th or 17th century. The English Criminal Cant developed in the 16th century. The English Criminal Cant was a new kind of speech used by criminals and cheats, meaning it developed mostly in saloons and gambling houses. The English Criminal Cant was at first believed to be foreign, meaning scholars thought that it had either originated in Romania or had a relationship to French. The English Criminal Cant was slow developing. In fact, out of the four million people who spoke English, only about ten thousand spoke the English Criminal Cant. By the end of the 16th century this new style of speaking was considered to be a language «without reason or order». During the 18th century schoolmasters taught pupils to believe that the English Criminal Cant (which by this time had developed into slang) was not the correct usage of English and slang was considered to be taboo [6].
Because most people are individuals who desire uniqueness, it stands to reason that slang has been in existence for as long as language has been in existence.
A slang exdivssion may suddenly become widely used and as quickly die (23-skiddoo). It may become accepted as standard speech, either in its original slang meaning (bus from omnibus, taxi, piano, phone, pub mob, dandy) or with an altered, possibly tamed meaning (jazz, which originally had sexual connotations). Some exdivssions have persisted for centuries as slang (booze for alcoholic beverage). In the 20th century, mass media and rapid travel have speeded up both the circulation and the demise of slang terms. Television and novels have turned criminal cant into slang (five grand for 5000). Changing social circumstances may stimulate the sdivad of slang. Drug-related exdivssions (such as pot and marijuana) were virtually a secret jargon in the 1940s; in the 1960s they were adopted by rebellious youth; and in the 1970s and ’80s they were widely known. But this must be done by those whose mother tongue is English. They and only they, being native speakers of the English language, are its masters and lawgivers. It is for them to place slang in its proper category by specifying its characteristic features.
Many words formerly labeled as slang have now become legitimate units of the Standard English. Thus, the word «kid» (=child), which was considered low slang in the 19th century, is now a legitimate colloquial unit of the English literary language.
It sounds unbelievable but not so long ago the words: of course, to take care, to get up, lunch were considered to be slang. «Lunch» entered the language after World War I is not used in some books that divfer «dinner» to «lunch».
2.2 Types of slang
Slang users tend to invent many more synonyms or near-synonyms than might be thought strictly necessary: for example, criminals may have a dozen different nicknames (gat, crone, iron, chrome) for their guns, or for informers (canary, grass, snout, stoolie); drinkers can choose from hundreds of competing descriptions of a state of intoxication (hammered, hamstered, langered, mullered) [7]
It is convenient to group slang words according to their place in the vocabulary system and more divcisely in the semantic system of the vocabulary. If they denote a new and necessary notion they may prove an enrichment of the vocabulary and be accepted into Standard English. If on the other hand they make just another addition to a cluster of synonyms and have nothing but novelty to back them, they die out very quickly, constituting the most changeable part of the vocabulary.
Another type of classification suggests subdivision according to the sphere of usage, into general slang and special slang. [8]General slang includes words that are not specific for any social or professional group, whereas special slang is peculiar for some such group: teenager slang, university slang, public school slang, Air Force slang, football slang, sea slang and so on.
General slang is language that speakers deliberately use to break with the standard language and to change the level of discourse in the direction of formality. It signals the speakers` intention to refuse conventions[9] and their need to be fresh and startling in their exdivssion, to ease social exchanges and induce friendliness, to reduce excessive seriousness and avoid clichés, in brief, to enrich the language. General slang words have a wide circulation as they are neither group – nor subject – restricted.[10]
You’ll hear Brits refer to their currency as quid, much in the same way American dollars are «bucks» and Canadian money is called «loonies.»
If someone asks to borrow a fag off you, give them a cigarette.
In Britain, a kiss is called a snog. If someone is knackered, that means they are exhausted. If someone is referred to as «a minger», that means that they’re unattractive. If someone tells you to «Bugger off!» well, it is suggested that you go away.
Instead of «Hi, how are you?» go with the quick and easy British «Alright?» No answer is expected.
Emphasize greatness. These include «barry,» «ace» and «kewl.» The latter kind of sounds like «cool» but you’ll know the difference in your heart.
Insult others. Calling someone an «arseface» or a «pilchard» will be even more the merrier if they have no clue you are insulting them to their face.
Throw in the emphatic «bloody» a lot. Bloody this, bloody that and bloody everything. The British are also known to put it in the middle of words for even more emphasis, such as «absobloodlylutely.»
Describe drunks. Slang is always full of euphemisms for «drunk» in any language. The British versions include «airlocked» and «bevvied up,» as in «full of beverage.»
Special slang is language that speakers use to show their belonging to a group and establish solidarity or intimacy with the other group members.[11] It is often used by speakers to create their own identity, including aspects such as social status and geographical belonging, or even age, education, occupation, lifestyle, and special interests. It is largely used by people of a common age and experience to strengthen the bonds within their own peer group, keeping the older generation at a distance.[12]It is also used by people sharing the same occupation to increase efficiency in communication; or by those sharing the same living conditions to hide secret information from people in authority. It is finally used by people sharing an attitude or a life style to reinforce their group cohesiveness, keeping insiders together and outsiders out.
Special slang tends to originate in subcultures within a society. Occupational groups (for example, loggers, police, medical professionals, and computer specialists) are prominent originators of both jargon and slang; other groups creating slang include the armed forces, teenagers, racial minorities, citizens-band radiobroadcasters, sports groups, drug addicts, criminals, and even religious denominations. Slang exdivssions often embody attitudes and values of group members. They may thus contribute to a sense of group identity and may convey to the listener information about the speaker's background.
While some slang words and phrases are used throughout all of Britain (e.g. knackered, meaning «exhausted»), others are restricted to smaller regions.
a)                Cockney rhyming slang
Cockney Rhyming Slang originated in the East End of London.
Rhyming slang is a form of slang in which a word is replaced by a rhyming word, typically the second word of a two-word phrase (so stairs becomes «apples and pears»). The second word is then often dropped entirely («I'm going up the apples»), meaning that the association of the original word to the rhyming phrase is not obvious to the uninitiated.
Rhyming Slang phrases are derived from taking an exdivssion which rhymes with a word and then using that exdivssion instead of the word. For example the word «look» rhymes with «butcher's hook». In many cases the rhyming word is omitted — so you won't find too many Londoners having a «bucher's hook», but you might find a few having a «butcher's».
The rhyming word is not always omitted so Cockney exdivssions can vary in their construction, and it is simply a matter of convention which version is used.
In this list of example Cockney slang for parts of the body, you'll notice that some exdivssions omit the rhyming word but others do not.
English
Rhymes with
Cockney
Feet
Plates of meat
Plates
Teeth
Hampstead Heath
Hampsteads
Legs
Scotch eggs
Scotches
Eyes
Mince pies
Minces
Arms
Chalk Farms
Chalk Farms
Hair
Barnet Fair
Barnet
Head
Loaf of bread
Loaf
Face
Boat race
Boat race
Mouth
North and south
North and south
The proliferation of rhyming slang allowed many of its traditional exdivssions to pass into common usage. Some substitutions have become relatively widesdivad in Britain, for example «scarper», meaning to run away is derived from «Scapa Flow» meaning «to go». «To have a butcher's», which means to have a look, from «butcher's hook. For example „use your loaf“ is an everyday phrase for the British, but not too many people realize it is Cockney Rhyming Slang (»loaf of bread: head"). There are many more examples of this unwitting use of Cockney Rhyming Slang. [13]
Television has raised awareness of Cockney Rhyming Slang to far greater heights. Classic TV shows such as «Steptoe and Son», «Minder», «Porridge» and «Only Fools and Horses» have done much to sdivad the slang throughout Britain and to the rest of the world.
Modern Cockney slang that is being developed today tends to only rhyme words with the names of celebrities or famous people. There are very few new Cockney slang exdivssions that do not follow this trend. The only one that has gained much ground recently that bucks this trend is «Wind and Kite» meaning «Web site».
This style of rhyming has sdivad through many English-speaking countries, where the original phrases are supplemented by rhymes created to fit local needs. Creation of rhyming slang has become a word game for people of many classes and regions. The term 'Cockney' rhyming slang is generally applied to these expansions to indicate the rhyming style; though arguably the term only applies to phrases used in the East End of London. Similar formations do exist in other parts of the United Kingdom; for example, in the East Midlands, the local accent has formed «Derby Road», which rhymes with «cold»: a conjunction that would not be possible in any other dialect of the UK.
Examples of Rhyming Slang

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b)                 Polari
Polari (or alternatively Parlare, Parlary, Palare, Palarie, Palari, Parlyaree,from Italian parlare, «to talk») was a form of cant slang used in Britain by actors, circus or fairground showmen, criminals, prostitutes etc., and latterly by the gay subculture. It was revived in the 1950s and 1960s by its use by camp characters Julian and Sandy in the popular BBC radio shows Beyond our Ken and Round the Horne, but its origins can be traced back to at least the 19th century (or, according to at least one source, to the 16th century). There is some debate about how it originated. There is a longstanding connection with Punch and Judy street puppet performers who traditionally used Polari to talk with each other.[14]
Polari is a mixture of Romance (Italian or Mediterranean Lingua Franca), Romany, London slang,backslang, rhyming slang, sailor slang, and thieves' cant. Later it expanded to contain words from the Yiddish language of the Jewish subculture which settled in the East End of London, the US forces (divsent in the UK during World War II) and 1960s drug users. It was a constantly developing form of language, with a small core lexicon of about 20 words (including bona, ajax, eek, cod, naff, lattie, nanti, omi, palone, riah, zhoosh (tjuz), TBH, trade, vada), with over 500 other lesser-known items.
In 1990 Morrissey titled an album Bona Drag– Polari for «nice outfit»– and the title of his «Piccadilly Palare» single that same year is an alternative spelling of what would be «Piccadilly Polari.»
Also in 1990, comic book writer Grant Morrison created the character Danny the Street (based on Danny La Rue), a sentient transvestite street for the comic Doom Patrol. Danny speaks largely in Polari.
The 1998 film Velvet Goldmine, which chronicles a fictional retelling of the rise and fall of glam rock, contains a 60s flashback in which a group of characters converse in Polari, while their words are humorously subtitled below.
In 2002, two books on Polari were published, Polari: The Lost Language of Gay Men, and Fantabulosa: A Dictionary of Polari and Gay Slang (both by Paul Baker). Also in 2002, hip hop artist Juha released an album called Polari, with the chorus of the title song written entirely in the slang.
Word
Definition
AC/DC
a couple
ajax
nearby (from adjacent?)
alamo
hot for you/him
aunt nell
listen, hear
aunt nells
ears
aunt nelly fakes
earrings
aunt nell danglers
earrings
barney
a fight
batts
shoes
bibi
bisexual
bijou
small/little (means «jewel» in French)
blag
pick up
blue
code word for «homosexual»
Bod
body
c)                  Internet slang
Internet slang (Internet language, Internet Short-hand, leet, netspeak or chatspeak) is a type of slang that Internet users have popularized, and in many cases, have coined. Such terms often originate with the purpose of saving keystrokes. Many people use the same abbreviations in texting and instant messaging, and social networking websites. Acronyms, keyboard symbols and shortened words are often used as methods of abbreviation in Internet slang.
In such cases, new dialects of slang, such as leet or Lolspeak, develop as ingroup memes rather than time savers. In leet speak, letters may be replaced by characters of similar appearance. For this reason, leet is often written as l33t or 1337.
The Internet has transformed the way we manipulate our systems of signs and the relationships between producers and consumers of information. Its effect on slang has two aspects. Firstly, online communication has generated its own vocabulary of technical terminology, essentially jargon (spam, blogging, phishing) and informal, abbreviated or humorous terms (addy, noob, barking moonbat etc.) which qualify as slang.[15] The amount of new cyberslang is fairly small, but the Internet has also allowed the collecting, classifying and promoting of slang from other sources in.
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--PAGE_BREAK--Another technical development – text messaging – has triggered changes in the culture of communication, especially among young people, and brought with it, like telegrams, CB-radio or Internet chatrooms, a new form of abbreviated code. It has excited some academic linguists but it hasn’t, however, contributed anything meaningful to the evolution of slang. [16]
Word or phrase
Abbreviation(s)
Account
acc, acct or acnt
Address
addy or add
And
n, an, nd, or &
Anticipate
ntcp8
Alright
aight or ight or aite
Are you there?
rut or u der
At the moment
atm
As far as I know
afaik
Back
b
Be right back
brb
Be back later
bbl
Be back soon
bbs
Because
cuz, bcuz, bcz, bcos, bc, cos, coz, cz or bcoz
Best friend or Boyfriend
bf or b/f
Between
btwn or b/w
By the way
btw
Cousin
cuzin or cuz
Definitely
def or deffo
Does it look like I give a shit?
DILLIGAS
Don't know
dunno
Don't worry
dw
Falling off chair laughing
focl
Forever
4eva or 4evr or fo eva
Girlfriend or GoodFriend
gf or g/f
Got to go
g2g or gtg
Great
gr8
Have a nice day
H.A.N.D.
Hold on
hld on or h/o
Homework
hw, hwk or hmwk
How are you
hru
I can't remember
icr
I know
aino
I know, right?
ikr
I love you
ily, luv u, ilu, luv ya, i wub u or i <3 u, 143 (I stands for one letter, Love stands for 4 letters, You stands for 3 letters)
Laugh out loud / lots of love
lol
Laugh out loud (multiple times)
lolliesm lulz or lolz
Love
luv or <3
Love you (see also I love you)
ly, <3u
No problem
np
No thank you
no tnk u, nty or no ty
Oh My God
omg or (comically) zomg, romg, womg, omgz
Okay
k or kk
Oh really?
orly?
parents behind back
pbb
Peace
pc, pce, pece, or \/
People
ppl, peeps
Right On!
RO
Rocking/Rock (metal hands)
\m/
See you/see you later
cya, cu, or cya/cu l8er/l8a/l8r
Sorry
sry or soz
Scare the shit out of my self/Scare the shit out of yourself
stsooms/stsooys
Talk to you later
ttyl or t2yl
Ta-ta for now
ttfn
Thinking of you
TOY
What the hell
wth
What's up
sup or zup

d)                 Slang of army, police.
Military slang is an array of colloquial terminology used commonly by military personnel, including slang which is unique to or originates with the armed forces.[17]
·                     The Andrew/Grey Funnel Ferries — The Royal Navy, named for some important bloke or a Saint or something.
·                     Blighty — The UK, the name was taken from a province in India…
·                     Brag Rags — Medals.
·                     Cant-be-arrsed-itis -suffered mainly by those on exercise
·                     «Chin-strapped» — «chin-strap» — tired knackered
·                     Combat Suit — Jacket, trousers, and possibly hood, cap, etc., made from DPM material.
·                     Doss-bag — Army Issue Barnes-Wallace, Gonk-bag and Green Maggot.
·                     Dust — Washing powder.
·                     Gat — rifle (also Bunduk, or Bang-Stick) (mainly used by «Hats»).
·                     Green/Bleeds green — a keen soldier, probably should watched suspiciously...from a long way away.
·                   NAAFI — «Navy, Army and Air Force Institutes». Quasi-civilian non-profit retaining such as tea, pies, cakes and sandwiches to the troops within garrisons worldwide. Pronounced 'NAFF-ee', it was created in 1921 to run recreational establishments for the Armed forces to sell goods to servicemen and their families. It runs clubs, bars, (EFI), which provides NAAFI facilities in war zones.
·                     Puttees — long strips of flannel cloth in shades of khaki, rifle green or black, wrapped tightly at the top of ankle-boots to provide support over rough ground (now CVHQ RA)
·                     Sangar — possibly derived from the Indian; usually a low wall with side wings built to give cover from fire in areas where digging is difficult or impossible.
·                     Sky Pilot — The Padre — he's got his head in the clouds talking to his boss.
·                     Stripey — Sergeant.
·                     Teeny-weeny Airways — The Army Air Corps.
·                     Warry (or War-y) — aggressive, militaristic; can be an insult.
·                     Webbing — cotton for belt as worn by the type of ladies I never get to meet, and several dodgy RM types down Union St.
There are more than a hundred words for «police» in different glossaries… And this is by no means a unique case.[18]
Offences and description ·                     ABH: Actual bodily harm
·                     D&D: Drunk And Disorderly
·                     DIP: Drunk In Public
·                     GBH: Grievous Bodily Harm
·                     TDA: Taking and Driving Away
·                     TWOC: Taken Without Owner's Consent
Initialisms describing situations ·                     ASNT: Area Searched No Trace
·                     FATAC: Fatal Road Traffic Accident
·                     MFH: Missing From Home
·                     NAI: Non-Accidental Injury
·                     RTA: Road-Traffic Accident
Miscellaneous initialisms ·                     ARV: Armed Response Vehicle
·                     TFU: Tactical Firearms Unit
·                     SOCO: Scenes Of Crime Officer; a forensic crime scene examiner
·                     VSS: Victim Support Scheme
Miscellaneous abbreviations ·                     MISPER: Missing person
·                     POLAC: A collision involving a police vehicle
·                     WOFF: Write off; a vehicle or other property deemed a total loss for insurance purposes
·                     WINQ: Warrant inquiry

e) Money slang
While the origins of these slang terms are many and various, certainly a lot of English money slang is rooted in various London communities, which for different reasons liked to use language only known in their own circles, notably wholesale markets, street traders, crime and the underworld, the docks, taxi-cab driving, and the immigrant communities. London has for centuries been extremely cosmopolitan, both as a travel hub and a place for foreign people to live and work and start their own businesses. This contributed to the development of some 'lingua franca' exdivssions, i.e., mixtures of Italian, Greek, Arabic, Yiddish (Jewish European/Hebrew dialect), Spanish and English which developed to enable understanding between people of different nationalities, rather like a pidgin or hybrid English. Certain lingua franca blended with 'parlyaree' or 'polari', which is basically underworld slang.
Backslang also contributes several slang money words. Backslang reverses the phonetic (sound of the) word, not the spelling, which can produce some strange interdivtations, and was popular among market traders, butchers and greengrocers.
Here are the most common and/or interesting British slang money words and exdivssions, with meanings, and origins where known. Many are now obsolete; typically words which relate to div-decimalisation coins, although some have re-emerged and continue to do so.
Some non-slang words are included where their origins are particularly interesting, as are some interesting slang money exdivssions which originated in other parts of the world, and which are now entering the English language.[19]
Here are some examples of money slang words:
archer = two thousand pounds (£2,000), late 20th century, from the Jeffrey Archer court case in which he was alleged to have bribed call-girl Monica Coughlan with this amount.
ayrton senna/ayrton = tenner (ten pounds, £10) — cockney rhyming slang created in the 1980s or early 90s, from the name of the peerless Brazilian world champion Formula One racing driver, Ayrton Senna (1960-94), who won world titles in 1988, 90 and 91, before his tragic death at San Marino in 1994.
bag/bag of sand = grand = one thousand pounds (£1,000), seemingly recent cockney rhyming slang, in use from around the mid-1990s in Greater London; perhaps more widely too.
bar = a pound, from the late 1800s, and earlier a sovereign, probably from Romany gypsy 'bauro' meaning heavy or big, and also influenced by allusion to the iron bars use as trading currency used with Africans, plus a possible reference to the custom of casting of divcious metal in bars.
bender = sixpence (6d) Another slang term with origins in the 1800s when the coins were actually solid silver, from the practice of testing authenticity by biting and bending the coin, which would being made of near-pure silver have been softer than the fakes.
bees (bees and honey) = money. Cockney rhyming slang from the late 1800s. Also shortened to beesum (from bees and, bees 'n', to beesum).
big ben — ten pounds (£10) the sum, and a ten pound note — cockney rhyming slang.
boodle = money.
bunce = money, usually unexpected gain and extra to an agreed or divdicted payment, typically not realised by the payer.
cabbage = money in banknotes,
carpet = three pounds (£3) or three hundred pounds (£300), or sometimes thirty pounds (£30). This has confusing and convoluted origins, from as early as the late 1800s: It seems originally to have been a slang term for a three month prison sentence, based on the following: that 'carpet bag' was cockney rhyming slang for a 'drag', which was generally used to describe a three month sentence; also that in the prison workshops it supposedly took ninety days to produce a certain regulation-size piece of carpet; and there is also a belief that prisoners used to be awarded the luxury of a piece of carpet for their cell after three year's incarceration. The term has since the early 1900s been used by bookmakers and horse-racing, where carpet refers to odds of three-to-one, and in car dealing, where it refers to an amount of £300.
chip = a shilling (1/-) and earlier, mid-late 1800s a pound or a sovereign. According to Cassells chip meaning a shilling is from horse-racing and betting. The association with a gambling chip is logical. Chip and chipping also have more general associations with money and particularly money-related crime, where the derivations become blurred with other underworld meanings of chip relating to sex and women (perhaps from the French 'chipie' meaning a vivacious woman) and narcotics (in which chip refers to diluting or skimming from a consignment, as in chipping off a small piece — of the drug or the profit).
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--PAGE_BREAK--clod = a penny (1d). Clod was also used for other old copper coins. From cockney rhyming slang clodhopper (= copper).
coal = a penny (1d). Also referred to money generally, from the late 1600s, when the slang was based simply on a metaphor of coal being an essential commodity for life. The spelling cole was also used.
cock and hen = ten pounds. The ten pound meaning of cock and hen is 20th century rhyming slang. Cock and hen — also cockerel and hen — has carried the rhyming slang meaning for the number ten for longer. Its transfer to ten pounds logically grew more popular through the inflationary 1900s as the ten pound amount and banknote became more common currency in people's wages and wallets, and therefore language. Cock and hen also gave raise to the variations cockeren, cockeren and hen, hen, and the natural rhyming slang short version, cock — all meaning ten pounds.
commodore = fifteen pounds (£15). The origin is almost certainly London, and the clever and amusing derivation reflects the wit of Londoners: Cockney rhyming slang for five pounds is a 'lady', (from Lady Godiva = fiver); fifteen pounds is three-times five pounds (3x£5=£15); 'Three Times a Lady' is a song recorded by the group The Commodores; and there you have it: Three Times a Lady = fifteen pounds = a commodore. (Thanks Simon Ladd, Jun 2007)
cows = a pound, 1930s, from the rhyming slang 'cow's licker' = nicker (nicker means a pound). The word cows means a single pound since technically the word is cow's, from cow's licker.
deep sea diver = fiver (£5), heard in use Oxfordshire late 1990s, this is rhyming slang dating from the 1940s.
dosh = slang for a reasonable amount of spending money, for instance enough for a 'night-out'. Almost certainly and logically derived from the slang 'doss-house', meaning a very cheap hostel or room, from Elizabethan England when 'doss' was a straw bed, from 'dossel' meaning bundle of straw, in turn from the French 'dossier' meaning bundle.
dough = money. From the cockney rhyming slang and metaphoric use of 'bread'.
dunop/doonup = pound, backslang from the mid-1800s, in which the slang is created from a reversal of the word sound, rather than the spelling, hence the loose correlation to the source word.
flag = five pound note (£5), UK, notably in Manchester.The word flag has been used since the 1500s as a slang exdivssion for various types of money, and more recently for certain notes. Originally (16th-19thC) the slang word flag was used for an English fourpenny groat coin, derived possibly from Middle Low German word 'Vleger' meaning a coin worth 'more than a Bremer groat' (Cassells).
flim/flimsy = five pounds (£5), early 1900s, so called because of the thin and flimsy paper on which five pound notes of the time were printed.
folding/folding stuff/folding money/folding green = banknotes, especially to differentiate or emphasise an amount of money as would be impractical to carry or pay in coins, typically for a night out or to settle a bill. Folding, folding stuff and folding money are all popular slang in London.
foont/funt = a pound (£1), from the mid-1900s, derived from the German word 'pfund' for the UK pound.
french/french loaf = four pounds, most likely from the second half of the 1900s, cockney rhyming slang for rofe (french loaf = rofe), which is backslang for four, also meaning four pounds. Easy when you know how…
garden/garden gate = eight pounds (£8), cockney rhyming slang for eight, naturally extended to eight pounds. In spoken use 'a garden' is eight pounds. Incidentally garden gate is also rhyming slang for magistrate, and the plural garden gates is rhyming slang for rates. The word garden features strongly in London, in famous place names such as Hatton Garden, the diamond quarter in the central City of London, and Covent Garden, the site of the old vegetable market in West London, and also the term appears in sexual euphemisms, such as 'sitting in the garden with the gate unlocked', which refers to a careless divgnancy.
generalise/generalize = a shilling (1/-), from the mid 1800s, thought to be backslang. Also meant to lend a shilling, apparently used by the middle classes, divsumably to avoid embarrassment. Given that backslang is based on phonetic word sound not spelling, the conversion of shilling to generalize is just about understandable, if somewhat tenuous, and in the absence of other explanation is the only known possible derivation of this odd slang.
gen net/net gen = ten shillings (1/-), backslang from the 1800s (from 'ten gen').
grand = a thousand pounds (£1,000 or $1,000) Not pluralised in full form. Shortened to 'G' (usually plural form also) or less commonly 'G's'. Originated in the USA in the 1920s, logically an association with the literal meaning — full or large.
greens = money, usually old-style green coloured pound notes, but actully applying to all money or cash-earnings since the slang derives from the cockney rhyming slang: 'greengages' (= wages).
2.3 Phonetic peculiarities of slang
While many slang words introduce new concepts, some of the most effective slang provides new exdivssions--fresh, satirical, shocking--for established concepts, often very respectable ones. Sound is sometimes used as a basis for this type of slang, as, for example, in various phonetic distortions (e.g., pig Latin terms). It is also used in rhyming slang, which employs a fortunate combination of both sound and imagery. Thus, gloves are «turtledoves» (the gloved hands suggesting a pair of billing doves), a girl is a «twist and twirl» (the movement suggesting a girl walking), and an insulting imitation of flatus, produced by blowing air between the tip of the protruded tongue and the upper lip, is the «raspberry,» cut back from «raspberry tart.» Most slang, however, depends upon incongruity of imagery, conveyed by the lively connotations of a novel term applied to an established concept. Slang is not all of equal quality, a considerable body of it reflecting a simple need to find new terms for common ones, such as the hands, feet, head, and other parts of the body. Food, drink, and sex also involve extensive slang vocabulary. Strained or synthetically invented slang lacks verve, as can be seen in the desperate efforts of some sportswriters to avoid mentioning the word baseball--e.g., a batter does not hit a baseball but rather «swats the horsehide,» «plasters the pill,» «hefts the old apple over the fence,» and so on.[20]
If we try to characterize rhyming slang in particular, we can find such phonetic features:
1.Monophthongization
This affects the lexical set mouth vowel. Wells believes that it is widely agreed that the «mouth» vowel is a «touchstone for distinguishing between „true Cockney“ and popular London» and other more standard accents. Cockney usage would include monophthongization of the word.
Example:
mouth = mauf rather than mouth
2. Glottal stop
Wells describes the glottal stop as also particularly characteristic of Cockney and can be manifested in different ways such as «t» glottalling in final position. A 1970s study of schoolchildren living in the East End found /p,t,k/ «almost invariably glottalized» in final position.
Examples:
cat = up = sock =
It can also manifest itself as a bare as the realization of word internal intervocalic /t/
Examples:
Waterloo = Waerloo City = Ciy A drink of water = A drin' a wa'er A little bit of bread with a bit of butter on it = A li'le bi' of breab wiv a bi' of bu'er on i'.
As would be expected, a Cockney speaker uses fewer glottal stops for t or d than a «London» speaker. However, there are some words where the omission of t has become very accepted.
Examples:
Gatwick = Gawick
Scotland = Sco'land
statement = Sta'emen
network = Ne work
3. Dropped h at beginning of words (Voiceless glottal fricative)
In the working-class («common») accents throughout England,h dropping at the beginning of certain words is heard often, but it`s certainly heard more in Cockney, and in accents closer to Cockney. The usage is strongly stigmatized by teachers and many other standard speakers.
Examples:
house = `ouse
hammer = `ammer
4. TH fronting
Another very well known characteristic of Cockney is th fronting which involves the replacement of the dental fricatives, and by labiodentals [f] and [v] respectively.
Examples:
thin = fin
brother = bruvver
three = free
bath = barf
5. Vowel lowering
Examples:
dinner = dinna
marrow= marra
6. Prosody
The voice quality of Cockney has been described as typically involving «chest tone» rather than «head tone» and being equated with «rough and harsh» sounds versus the velvety smoothness of the Kensington or Mayfair accents spoken by those in other more upscale areas of London.
7. Rhyme
Cockney English is also characterized by its own special vocabulary and usage in the form of «cockney rhyming slang». The way it works is that you take a pair of associated words where the second word rhymes with the word you intend to say, then use the first word of the associated pair to indicate the word you originally intended to say. Some rhymes have been in use for years and are very well recognized, if not used, among speakers of other accents.
Examples:
«apples and pears» -stairs
«plates of meat» -feet
There are others, however, that become established with the changing culture.
Example:
«John Cleese» — cheese
«John Major» — pager

2.4 Morphological characteristics of slang
Slang comes to be a very numerous part of the English language. It is considered to be one of the main redivsentatives of the nation itself. The birth of new words results from the order of the modern society. Slang arises due to our propensity for replacing old denominations by exdivssive ones. And yet the growing popularity of every new creation divvents it from remaining fresh and imdivssive. What was felt as strikingly witty yesterday becomes dull and stale today, since everybody knows it and uses it. So how do the slang words come to life? There are several ways of slang words formation:
1. Various figures of speech participate in slang formation.
For example: upperstorey-head (metaphor)
skirt-girl (metonymy)
killing-astonishing (hyperbole)
 some-excellent or bad (understatement)
 clear as mud (irony)
Slang items usually arise by the same means in which new words enter the general vocabulary.
2. The slang word can appear thanks to the recycling of the words and parts of words, which are already in the language.
Exdivssions may take form as metaphors, similes, and other figures of speech (dead as a doornail).Some slang formation follow the rules of Standard English. F.e., slang behaves regularly in the forming of denominal adjectives by –y suffixation (e.g. cbordy- moody, cbord-a bad mood, gobby-mouthy, slang gob-mouth) and deverbal adjectives by – able suffixation (shaggable- slang to shag –to fornicate). It uses the suffix –ette to denote female sex as in punkette (a female punk). It uses the verbal divfix de- to convey a sense of removal or deprivation to the base as in de-bag –to remove trousers. [21]
Words may acquire new meanings (cool, cat). A narrow meaning may become generalized (fink, originally a strikebreaker, later a betrayer or disappointer) or vice-versa (heap, a run-down car). Most affixation tend to belong to extragrammatical morphology, though they exhibit a certain regularity and stability.
Slang has some productive suffixes which are either novel (eg. -o/oo, -eroo, -ers) or used differently from Standard English. The slang suffix –o means either ``a stupid unintelligent person``(dumbo, thicko) or a person with a particular habbit or characteristic (eg. Saddo, sicko). This suffix seems to be productive in the making of forms of address (kiddo, yobbo)
A cumulation of the suffix – er with –o/oo produces –eroo in slang as in smackeroo, meaning the same as smacker but with a more light – hearted slant.
Another profilic slang cumulation is –ers as in some pair nouns (cobblers, conkers, knackers), plural nouns (choppers-teeth, trousers) and uncountable nouns (ackers-money, uppers- amphetamine). The slang suffix –ers often occurs after abbreviation as in bathers (bathing costumes), brekkers (breakfast), taters (potatoes).
The suffix –s lost its inflectional meaning in slang and conveys new meaning to the base: afters- dessert, flicks- cinema, messages- groceries.
The use of – ed is also noteworthy in slang. It is added to noun to obtain adjectives: boxed, brained, hammered, ratted. –er in slang gives undivdictable sense as in belter- excellent thing or event, bottler-person who easily gives up.
3. Compounding makes one word from two. Initial and final combination have intensifying function: butt naked- fully naked, butt ugly- completely ugly; earache- a talkative person, faceache – a miserable looking person, airhead-someone out of touch with reality,  homeboy-a person from the same hometown
Infixes are unknown in standard English being a peculiarity of slang. Bloody, fucking are used to provide information about speaker`s attitude (as in abso-bloody-lutely, or in fan-fuckin`-tastic).
Conversion is anomalous in slang in case of adjective-noun as in high- pleasantly intoxicated state, massive- a group of people.[22]
4. In slang, frequently used words are likely to be abbreviated. For example: OTL-out to lunch-out of touch with reality. VJ-video jock-an announcer for televised music videos
Words may be clipped, or abbreviated (mike, microphone), and acronyms may gain currency (VIP, awol, snafu).
5. A currently productive process is the addition of a particle like OUT, OFF or ON to a noun, adjective or verb, to form a phrasal verb.
For example: blimp out-to overeat
blow off-to ignore
hit on-to make sexual overtures to
6. Unlike the general vocabulary of the language, English slang has not borrowed heavily from foreign languages, although it does borrow from dialects, especially from such ethnic or special interest groups which make an impact on the dominant culture.
7. Sometimes new words are just invented. shenanigans-tricks, pranks
So we can see that slang depart from what is generally regarded as grammatical or divdictable and is likely to pioneer original word-formation processes which pave the way for further morphological process.

III.                         PRACTICAL PART
1.                Translate the sentences from Fnglish. [23]
a) Sarah: hey why is Jimmy in the background of our prom picture?
Ryan: irk, he must have photobombed it at the last second.
b) I couldn't get a word in edgewise. She kept talking to me about her shoes, purse, and how her best friend just got dumped. I am a word receptacle.
c) Every morning Sherwin swings by our area to say hi and pulls a management by driveby.
d) Tiger: «I have to run to Zales to get a Kobe Special.»
Friend: «What's that?»
Tiger: «A house on a finger.»
e) «Dan won't answer your calls. He's in airplane mode.»
f) «Sarah went into airplane mode for three days after Charlie dumped her.»
g) Man, when I get back to work I'll have to start going to the gym again- I've put on some serious holiday pounds
2.                Find slang words in the part of `` Roaring Girl`` [24]
Prologus A play expected long makes the audience look
For wonders, that each scene should be a book,
Compos'd to all perfection; each one comes
And brings a play in's head with him: up he sums
What he would of a roaring girl have writ;
If that he finds not here, he mews at it.
Only we entreat you think our scene
Cannot speak high, the subject being but mean:
A roaring girl whose notes till now never were
    продолжение
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