Реферат: African American Interpersonal Communication Essay Research Paper
African American Interpersonal Communication Essay, Research Paper
African American Interpersonal Communication through Body Art
Tattoos make an individual’s self definition more complete by visually
communicating gang membership, status, rank and personal accomplishment (Phelan 277).
Tattooing and body piercing has been practiced in almost every culture around the world,
and for thousands of years. (Greif, Hewitt 367) The African American culture use body art
as a method of nonverbal interpersonal communication. The word tattoo became part of
the English vocabulary in 1769 when James Cook visited the Pacific Island of Tahiti.
Both sexes, he wrote, “ paint their bodies.” Tattow as it is called in their language, this is
done by inlaying the color of black under their skins in such a manner as to be indelible.
Some have ill designed figures of men birds or dogs, the women generally have this figure
Z simply on every joint of their fingers and toes (Shukla 234). Tattooing and body
piercing are increasing, especially among young college students. Yet in Western culture,
tattooing and piercing often have been considered taboo, perhaps stemming from the
Bible’s Old Testament citing in Leviticus 19:28 and Deutronomy 14:1 that prohibits the
marking of ones flesh in celebration of other gods ( Greif, Hewitt 367).
Tattoo’s reflect a persons past career objectives. To analyze the moral careers
communicated by these tattoos, we identify and elaborate upon five distinct phases in a
prison gang moral career: pre initiate, initiate, member, veteran, and supervisor ( Phelan
277). The major reasons tattoos are given are traditionally, body art has served to attract the
opposite sex, boost self esteem, ward off or invoke spirits, indicate social position or marital
status, identify with a particular age or gender group or mark a rite of passage, such as puberty or
marriage. It is this sort of strictly prescribed, highly ritualistic decoration that Beckwith and Fisher
depict in African ceremonies. “ We have tried to show how body art is relevant to every stage of
development, from birth to death”, says Fisher. But while the traditional, often spiritually based
versions of bod mod are quickly disappearing among indigenous peoples, the impulses behind
personal adornment remain unchanged: attracting a mate, signaling status, declaring allegiance to
a group( Lemonick 75). For men, the tattoo is a public identity symbol, and their first is usually on
their arm. Women reserve their tattoo for a more intimate audience, and they usually choose their
breast. For most, the tattoo is symbolic of their individuality and having withstood a
painful and exciting event. Tattooees enjoy being noticed, although they reveal their
tattoos selectively ( Davis 471). Anthropologists describe body art or modification as a
way of identifying oneself as being a part of a group, a tribe, or a gang: of denoting one’s
financial status or marital status: or even as a way of beautifying the body (Grief, Hewitt
368).
Implicit here is the theme of deliverance–the redemptive passage from pain and
uncertainty wherein the tattoo serves as both silent witness and lucky charm. Yet sailors
and navel men have long applied symbols to their bodies, in an almost magical way, to
guide their vessels and protect themselves, to deflect the temptations of a faraway
women and even alleviate the pain of flogging. Soldiers, bikers and underworld gangs
continue to adorn themselves with a range of symbols and ritual inscriptions: badges of
rank, rites of passages, emblems, slogans and whimsical vision. And as
appalling and savage as the tattooed prisoner appeared to 19th century criminologists, who
wrestled to catalogue the criminal condition, it was well understood that the expansive
repertoire of marks and mutilations universally made in prison bore than idle distraction.
Professor Cesare Lombroso, a leading criminal theorist of the 1890’s, cited vengeance,
vanity and superstitions as prime motivations behind these so called “ ideographic
hieroglyphs”. It was well accepted that tattoo represented a cryptic form of expression and
a way of overcoming a fierce and unfortunate plight (Crockett 15).
For many centuries, body piercings have been evident. Many from pirates to Roman
Centurions, have had body piercing– sometimes symbolizing royalty, bravery, virility, or as a rite
of passage (Greif, Hewitt 368). Why do people alter their body, sometimes painfully and
permanently with body piercing? Enid Schildkrout, curator of the show and chair of museums
division of anthropology, thinks there are many reasons: “To be Human.” For beauty, as a sign of
change or rebellion or conformity, to show status, to mark a moment, to be able to wear a
certain ornament, to identify with spirits or deities, to show group membership, to show gender
distinctions. Body piercing reflects what one society believes is beautiful, expensive, noble,
religious, or of high status. An outside culture may react quite differently to beards, tattoos, black
teeth, or oddly shaped bodies ( Tanne 65).
The African American culture use body art as method of nonverbal interpersonal
communication. In the future tattooing and body piercing is going to become more and more
popular. Tattooing and body piercing are increasing, especially among college students. A
study of 766 tattooed and/or body pierced college students across the United States, shows that
each student had something they were symbolizing with their tattoo or body piercing( Grief,
Hewitt 368). The creatively pierced, multiple tattooed teenagers who hang out at every mall in
America probably do not realize it and neither undoubtedly do their unsettled parents- but they
belong to a tradition as old as recorded history- probably much older. Ever since our Neolithic
ancestors invented art tens of thousands of years ago, humans have been painting, sculpting and
otherwise decorating everything in sight. The human body is just the nearest and most intimate
canvas. There is no known culture in which people do not paint, pierce, tattoo, reshape or simply
adorn their body ( Lemonick 76). While teenagers use pierced tongues and the like to set
themselves apart, some 20s to 30s have latched on to the “ neotribal” look an amalgam of facial
tattoos, piercing and “ native “ hairdos, and jewelry that barrows from culture from the South
Pacific to the Amazon. Much of this serves the same counterculture function that long hair did in
the 60s, observes Rufus Camphausen, an author based in the Netherlands who has written
extensively on tribal customs. He says “ These symbols are a way of saying, ‘ I do not belong to
the supermarket society.”
Tattooing and body piercing are getting out of hand. They symbolize
something the first one or two a person gets. Then their are those people who have piercing and
tattoos all over their bodies. A few tattoos or piercings are fine. The tattoos that show that a
person loves someone or the piercing that symbolizes bravery in a person is fine. Tattooing and
body piercing help and hurt a person in communication. While some people might know the
symbols or piercing they might not know what they stand for. They might not know the true
meaning a person is wanting them to get out of this. To make people more aware of symbols and
piercing out there, there should be an educational path to rely on for this.
Work Cited Page
Crockett, Gary. “ The Convict Tattoo” Social Alternatives 17 (Oct 1998): 14-16
Davis, Phil. “ New Ethnographies” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 19 (Jan 1991)
471-474
Ferguson, Henry “Body Piercing” BMJ: British Medical Journal 18 (Dec 1999) 1627-1630
Greif, Judith; Walter Hewitt. “Tattooing and Body Piercing” Clinical Nursing Research 8 (Nov
1999) 368-386
Lemonick, Michael D. “Body Art.” New York Times 22 Nov 1999
Phelan, Michael P. “ Prison Gang Members’ Tattoos as Identity Work” Symbolic Interaction 21
(1998) 277- 299
Silva, Paul. Scarification in the American Culture .U of Michigan P, 1999
Shukla, Pravina. “The Human Canvas” Natural History 108 ( Nov 1999) 80-82
Tanne, Janice Hopkins. “Body Art: Marks of Identity” British Medical Journal .320 (Jan 2000)
64
Wise, Amy. “ Gangs in America” Symbolic Interactions 23 (2000) 34-46
Bibliography
Work Cited Page
Crockett, Gary. “ The Convict Tattoo” Social Alternatives 17 (Oct 1998): 14-16
Davis, Phil. “ New Ethnographies” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 19 (Jan 1991)
471-474
Ferguson, Henry “Body Piercing” BMJ: British Medical Journal 18 (Dec 1999) 1627-1630
Greif, Judith; Walter Hewitt. “Tattooing and Body Piercing” Clinical Nursing Research 8 (Nov
1999) 368-386
Lemonick, Michael D. “Body Art.” New York Times 22 Nov 1999
Phelan, Michael P. “ Prison Gang Members’ Tattoos as Identity Work” Symbolic Interaction 21
(1998) 277- 299
Silva, Paul. Scarification in the American Culture .U of Michigan P, 1999
Shukla, Pravina. “The Human Canvas” Natural History 108 ( Nov 1999) 80-82
Tanne, Janice Hopkins. “Body Art: Marks of Identity” British Medical Journal .320 (Jan 2000)
64
Wise, Amy. “ Gangs in America” Symbolic Interactions 23 (2000) 34-46