Реферат: Способы письма в алфавите языка хинди
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ | ||||||||||
Способы письма в алфавите языка хинди Глава I: Алфавит ИМЕНА, МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ И ПРИЛАГАТЕЛЬНЫЕ Глава IX: Введение .... ГЛАГОЛЫ Глава XXI: Глаголы: Введение .... НАРЕЧИЯ, ПОСЛЕЛОГИ, СОЮЗЫ Глава XXXV: Наречия .... СИНТАКСИС ГлаваXXXIX: Разное.... ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ Приложение I: Префиксы и суффиксы .... | ||||||||||
Глава I: Алфавит | ||||||||||
Язык хинди, как и многие другие северно-индийские языки вроде маратхи и непали, использует санскритское письмо Нагари (или Деванагари), которое испокон веков применяется в санкритской литературе по всей Индии. Недавно, это письмо было стандартизировано Центральным управлением языка хинди, Министерством просвещения и обслуживания молодежи в целях выработки единообразия в письменной форме и улучшения формы некоторых из его букв. Этот «стандартизированный деванагари» приведен в Приложении V. Алфавит состоит из следующих 11 гласных и 35 согласных: Гласные: ¡ а, ¡ð а-а, ý и, ýá и-и, £ у-у, ¤ у-у, ¥ ры, Примечание: ‘ ü’ (анусвара) и ‘:’ ' (висарга) часто включаются в список гласных (и обычно пишутся как ¡ü и ¡:). Но, в языке хинди они – согласные. Знак ‘ ü’ (анусвара), помещенный над гласной, может представлять любую из согласных ´, ½ð, Âð, Ðð и Ùð (которые произносятся после гласного). Знак ‘:’' (висарга), помещенный после гласной, представляет è. Гласная ¥ в языке хинди появляется только в словах, заимствованных из санскрита. Согласные ¨î ка, ®ð кха, ±ð га, ³ð гха, ´ нга, Примечание: (1) ¡ ‘a’ присущ каждому алфавитному знаку согласной. Иными словами, алфавитные буквы согласных языка хинди означают не только согласные звуки. Они являются обозначениями слогов, состоящих из соответствующего согласного + ¡. Таким образом, ¨î – это не просто ‘к’, а k+a; âð – не просто ‘ль’, а l+a. Поэтому ¡ именуется «присущим согласной букве». (2) æð появляется в хинди только в словах, заимствованных из санскрита. Знак (чандра-бинду ), помещаемый над гласной (¡ùü, ¡ðû и т.д.) указывает назализацию гласной, которая именуется носовой (анунасика ). Так как анусваре неизменно предшествует гласная, а ее знак близко напоминает знак назализации (анунасику ), и оба знака помещаются над гласным, да к тому же звуки, представленные ими, схожи, анусвара на письме часто путается с чандрабинду (µðÐÍò×ðÐÇô) и заменяется ею. Таким образом, èø. (hai) «они есть» (почти всегда) пишется как èøü (hain), а èûçð (ханс) «смех» часто спутывается с èüçð (ханса) «гусь, лебедь». Однако не слишком трудно и даже полезно различить их. Анусвара следует за гласным и имеет в языке хинди значение ´þ, ½ðþ, Âðþ, Ððþ, or Ùðþ. ¡ü – это либо ¡´þ (как в ¨üî±ðÐð «браслет»), или ¡½ðþ (как в ÙðÐðð÷Üü¸ðÐð «развлечение»), или ¡Âðþ (как в ¡üÀð «яйцо»), или ¡Ððþ (как в ×ðüÇÜ «обезьяна»), или ¡Ùðþ (как в âðü×ðð «длинный»). Назализация, напротив, является модификацией произношения самого гласного: ¡û = носовой ¡, ¨î û= ¨þî + ¡û (а не ¨þî + ¡ + Ùðþ как ¨üî «был бы»), èø = è + ¦÷ û (а не è + ¦÷ + Ùðþ или èøü). Знак ‘ ü’ (анусвара) над гласной может представлять любую из согласных ´, ½ð, Âð, Ðð и Ùð (которые произносятся после гласной). (a) ‘ ü’ (анусвара), помещенная над гласной или согласной + гласная, может представлять, как уже было отмечено [(2) (d)], любой из пяти носовых звуков (`´þ, ½ðþ, Âðþ, Ððþ and Ùðþ), сочетающийся со следующей согласной. (b) Носовые, как правило, сочетаются только с согласными их собственного класса (варга ), или с другим носовым, или с Úð, Ü, âð, ãð, äð, æð, çð и è. (Сочетания наподобие Âðþ + ¨î или ½ðþ+Ñð, например, никогда не встречаются в хинди). Обычными являются следующие сочетания: (c) Во всех словах, носовые могут быть заменены анусварой, если они сопровождаются первыми четырьмя буквами их собственного разряда. Таким образом, Ñð´þ®ðð «опахало» может писаться как Ñðü®ðð, Øð´þ±ðó «щетка, метла» – как Øðü±ðó, Ñð½¸ðð «лапа» – как Ñðü¸ðð, ¡ÐÏðð «слепой» – как ¡üÏðð, ¡ÂÀð «яйцо» – как ¡üÀð, ×ðÙ×ðýá «Бомбей» – как ×ðü×ðýá и т. д. Исключение: ÙðôÐÐðð «младенец» (а не ÙðôüÐðð). Также не возможно написание ¡üÙðð, ÃðôüèðÜð, çðüÙððÐð и т. д. (d) Тем не менее, Ððþ перед äð или çð должно быть анусварой. ×ðÐçðó «флейта» должно писаться ×ðüçðó, а ÙðÐäðð «желание, цель» должно писаться Ùðüäðð. (e) Ùðþ на конце слова и перед согласной превращается в анусвару. çðÙðþ + Úðð÷±ð = çðüÚðð÷±ð «союз, соединение, сочетание, шанс», çðÙðþ+çððÜ=çðüçððÜ «круговерть бытия, мир», çðÙðþ + èðÜ = çðüèðÜ «сокрушение, разрушение, убийство». Знак ‘:’ (висарга), идущий за гласной, представляет звук ‘х’ (è). Он появляется исключительно в словах санскритского происхождения (¶:, ò¶: – исключения) после гласной: ¡Ãð: (атах – «отсюда, поэтому»), ÒîâðÃð: (пхалатах – «следовательно»). Некоторые арабские, персидские и английские согласные, обнаруживаемые в заимствованиях из этих языков, обозначаются следующими буквами с точкой – «î, ®ÿð, ²ð, ºð. Звуки «î, ®ÿð, ²ð, ºð и Õî встречаются только в правильном произношении образованных людей, знающих арабский, персидский, турецкий и английский языки. В обычной речи они заменяются на ¨î, ®ð, ±ð, ¸ð и Òî. ¡ðù обозначает о в английских словах наподобие office (¡ðùòÒîçð), college (¨îðùâð÷¸ð) и др. | ||||||||||
Глава 2 | ||||||||||
Вводное замечаниеВсе звуки человеческой речи производятся на выдохе (или вдохе), когда воздух проходит через гортань и впадины рта и носа. Гортань – это полость в горле (расположенная сразу за «Адамовым яблоком»), в которой имеются две голосовые связки. Последние напоминают две губы, натянутые горизонтально. Они могут расходиться в стороны, свободно пропуская воздух, который производит глухой звук, или соприкасаться и вибрировать, производя звонкий звук. При произношении согласных во рту создается полная или частичная преграда с помощью губ, (верхних) зубов, неба и языка. Язык может соприкасаться с верхними зубами, альвеолами (бугорками над ними) или небом и, таким образом, формировать различные по характеру звуки. Гласные формируются, главным образом, с помощью гортани. Вибрация голосовых связок производит «голос», а различные видоизменения «формы воздушного коридора выше гортани» обусловливают характер гласных. Этот проход назвают резонансной полостью. Формой воздушного коридора выше гортани и, следовательно, качеством гласного управляют, в основном, с помощью положения губ (D. Jones). Два гласных, соединяясь в один слог, формируют дифтонг. 3. (1) ¡ (a) – краткий, полуоткрытый, средний гласный. ¡×ð (аб – «теперь»), ¡±ðÜ (агар – «если»). ¡ð (a) – долгий, открытый гласный заднего ряда. ¡ð±ð (а-аг ) «огонь», ¡ðÑð (a-аp ) «Вы» (почтительное). ý (и ) — краткий, закрытый, передний гласный. ýÏðÜ (идхар ) «сюда», ý¨îçð¿ (иксатх ) «шестьдесят один». ýá (и-и ) – долгий, закрытый, передний гласный. ýáäð (и-иш ) «Бог», ýá®ð (и-икх ) «сахарных тростник». £ (u) – краткий, закрытый, заднего ряда, округленный гласный. £ÏðÜ (удхар ) 'туда'. £ÇÚð (удай ) «восход». ¤ (у-у ) долгий, закрытый, заднего ряда, округленный гласный. ¤ÑðÜ (у-упар ) «вверх, вверху», ¤Ðð (у-ун ) «шерсть». ¥ (ры) краткий и произносится как ri в английском слове rip: ¦ (э) – долгий, полузакрытый, передний гласный. ¦¨î (эк) «один». ¦÷×ð (айб ) «дефект, недостаток», ¦÷Ðð¨î (айнак ) «очки». ¡ð÷ (o) – долгий, полузакрытый, гласный заднего ряда. ¡ð÷÷çð (ос) «роса», ¡ð÷è! (ох ) «о!» ¡ðø (ау) – долгий, полуоткрытый гласный заднего ряда. ¡ðøÜÃð (аурат ) «женщина», ¡ðøÜ (аур ) «и, больше». (2) ý-ýá, £-¤, а так же ¡-¡ ð являются парами кратких и долгих гласных. (3) ¦÷ и ¡ðø в хинди и санскритских словах обычно являются долгими гласными. Однако, в «ученом» произношении санскритских слов, заимствованных в язык хинди, или перед полугласными Úð (ÙðøÚðð майя «мать») и ãð (¨îðøãðð каува «ворона») ¦÷ и ¡ðø превращаются в отчетливые дифтонги и произносятся как ¡ý (ай ) и ¡£ (ау ) соответственно. (4) Любой гласный, краткий или долгий, может гнусавиться (произноситься через нос): ¡û aн, ¡ðû a -ан, ¦û эн, ¡ð÷ü он : ¡ðû®ð (анкх ) «глаз», ýá ü¾ (и-инт ) «кирпич», ¤û¾ (у-унт ) «верблюд», ¡ð÷ü¿ (онТх ) «губы». | ||||||||||
Глава III | ||||||||||
Первые двадцать пять согласных, начиная с ¨î и по Ùð, разделены на пять разрядов. ¨î ®ð ±ð ³ð ´ мягкие палатальные (Ka-varga т.е. ка -разряд) (b) В первой колонке расположены глухие, во второй – глухие-придыхательные, в третьей – звонкие, в четвертой – звонкие-придыхательные, а в пятой – соответствующие своему разряду носовые. ¨î (k): ¨î×ð (kab) «когда?»; ¨îÙðâð (kamal) «лотус». ®ð (kh): ®ð±ð «птица»; ®ð¾Ùðâð (khatmal) «ошибка». ±ð (g): ±ðÜÙð (garam) `горячий`; ±ðÜÇÐð (gardan) «шея». ³ð (gh): ³ðÜ (ghar) «дом». ´ (n): ¡´±ð (ang) «тело»; çð´þ±ð (sang) «союз, общество». Примечание: согласные с придыханием должны ясно отличаться от непридыхательных звуков. Палатальные звуки образуются при прикосновении спинки языка с твердым небом. µð (c): µð¾Ñð¾ (cat-pat) «быстро»; µðÑðÃð (capat) «удар». ¶ (ch): ¶Ãð (chat) «крыша, потолок»; ¶âð (chal) «обман, мошенничество». ¸ð (j): ¸ð×ð (jab) «когда»; ¸ðÚð (jay) «победа». »ð (jh): »ð¾ (jhat) «быстро, сразу»; »ðâð¨î (jhalak) `jhalak «проблеск, сияние». ½ð (n): Ñð½ðþµð (panc) «пять»; (Ùð½ðþµð) (manc) «сцена, платформа. Церебральные или ретрофлексные звуки образуются соприкосновением нижней стороны кончика языка, загнутого назад к небу. Условимся обозначать эти звуки в транскрипции заглавными буквами. ¾ (t): ¾Ðð (Tan) «тонна»; ¾Ùð¾Ùð (tamtam) «тандем». ¿ (th): ¿±ð (Thag) «головорез, обманщик». À (d): ÀÜ (Dar) «страх»; À±ð (dag) «нога, шаг». Á (dh): Á×ð (Dhab) «путь, манера». Âð (n): ¥Âð [Rin] «долг», ±ðÂð (gan) «группа». (Âð встречается только в словах, заимствованных из санскрита, и даже в них никогда в начале слова). Примечание: Церебральные – это особые индийские звуки, не имеющие соответствия в европейских языках. Дентальные образуются касанием кончика языка верхних зубов, а не альвеол (за исключением Ðð), как в английском языке. Ãð (t): Ãð×ð (tab) «тогда»; Ãð¾ (tat) «берег». Æð (th): ÆðÐð (than) «сосок». Ç (d): ÇÙðÐð (daman) «подавление, контроль»; Ççð (das) «десять». Ïð (dh): ÏðÐð (dhan) «деньги, богатство»; ÏðÀÿ (dhar) «туловище, тело». Ðð (n): Ðð±ðÜ (nagar) «город»; ÐðÙð¨î (namak) «соль». Лабьяльные или губные. Ñð (p): Ñð¨îÀÿ (pakar); ÑðµðÑðÐð (pacpan) «пятьдесят пять». Òî (ph): Òîâð (phal) «плод»; ÒîÐð, (phan) «капюшон змеи». ×ð (b) ×ð¾Ðð (button); ×ðܱðÇ (bargad) «баньян». Øð (bh): ØðÚð (bhay) «страх»; ØðãðÐð (bhavan) «дом». Ùð (m): Ùð±ðÜ (magar) «крокодил»; ÙðÐð (man) «ум». Úð (y) произносится как русское «й»: Úðè (yah) «этоб он» Úðäð (yash) «слава, известность». Ü (к) произносится как русское «р»: Üýáçð (rais) «богатый (человек); э Üçð (ras) «роса, сок, вкус». âð (l) произносится как русское «ль»: âðµð¨î (lacak), «эластичность»; âðèÜ (lahar) «волна». ãð (v) произносится как русское «в» или «у»: ãðÐð (van), «лес»; ãðµðÐð (vacan) «слово, речь, высказывание». Фрикативные или шипящие (äð, æð и çð) äð (sh) произносится как русское «шь»: äð¨îÜ (шакар ) «сахар»; äðèÜ (shahar) «город». æð (SH) произносится как русское «ш» твердое. Условимся обозначать в транскрипции мягкое «ш» маленькой буквой, а твердое – заглавной. Встречается в санскритских заимствованиях. В хинди его произношение не отличается от äð: æð¾þ (ШаТ ) «шесть». çð (s): çð×ð (sab) «все»; çðÙð»ð (samajh) «понимание». è (h) произносится как русское «х»: èÙð (ham) «мы»; èâð (hal) «плуг». (1) ´ (R) и Áÿ (Rh) являются ретрофлексными и звонкими. (2) ¸ðÀÿ (jaR) «корень», ×ðÀÿ (baR) «баньян», ±ðÁÿ (gaRh) «крепость», ÑðÁ (paRh) «читай!». (3) Àÿ и Áÿ никогда не появляются в начале слова. (4) Не следует их смешивать с ретрофлексными, хотя в произношении они часто не различимы À (Д) and Á (Дх). (5) Эти звуки характерны только для хинди. Они не встречаются в санскрите или европейских языках. Знак придыхания в виде двоеточия на конце слова: (h) именуется «висаргой». Встречается почти исключительно в санскритских словах (¶:, ò¶: – исключения) после гласной: ¡Ãð: (atah) «поэтому», ÒîâðÃð: (phalatah) «следовательно». Согласная «î (q) встречается в заимствованиях из арабского, персидского и турецкого. Это – глухой гортанный «к»: «îÇ (qad) «размер, рост», ¨îÃðýá (qatai) «вполне, всеце ло, соверше нно». ®ÿð (х), ²ð (г-глухое), ºð (з) и Õî (ф) – фрикативные как и äð, æð, çð и è. Они появляются только в заимствованиях из арабского и персидского, последние две характерны также для заимствований из английского. ®ÿð и Õî – глухие, ²ð и ºð – звонкие: ®ÿð×ðÜ (xabar) «новость», ²ðÙð (gam) «печаль, сожаление». ºð (z) – звонкое çð. ºðèÜ (zahar) «яд». Õî (ф) отлично от Òî (пх) и является глухим ãð: Òî¨îÃð (faqat) «только, единственно», ÒîÃðè (fatah) «победа». Звуки «î, ®ÿð, ²ð, ºð и Õî обычно заменяются на ¨î, ®ð, ±ð, ¸ð и Òî… Некоторые сочетания согласных, такие как Ðè, Ùè и âè могут напоминать придыхательные Ððþ, Ùðþ и âðþ, хотя таковыми не являются: £Ðè÷ü (u-nhen) «им», ÃðôÙèðÜð (tu-mha-ra) «ваш», ¨ôîâèðÀÿó (ku-lha-Ri) «топор», ÐðÐèð «маленький». | ||||||||||
ГЛАВА IV | ||||||||||
В том случае, когда нужно показать, что согласная буква произносится без присущей ей «а», под ней ставится знак вроде запятой, называемый Халь (или Халанта ) Отметим несколько правил относительно присущего ¡, которые харатерны для разговорного хинди: (a) Присущий ¡ на конце слов не произносится: ¨îðÙð (kama) «работа» произносится как ¨îðÙðþ (kam), ¨îÙðâð (kamala) «лотос» – как ¨îÙðâðþ (kamal), ÙðÐð (mana) «ум» – как ÙðÐðþ (man), ¡ðÜðÙð (arama) «отдых» – как ¡ðÜðÙðþ (aram). Присущее ¡ также не произносится в середине трех- и более сложных слов, оказываясь между двумя произносимыми: µðâð¾ð (ca-la-ta) «идущий» – как µðâðþÃðð (cal-ta); ÐððÙð (nam) «имя», ÜðÃð (rat) «ночь», ò¨îÃðð×ð (kitab) «книга», ØðÜÐðð (bharna) «наполнять», çðõ®ðÐðð (sukhna) «сушить», ¨îÜÃð×ð (kartab) «действие, поступок», ¡ðÇÙðó (admi) «человек», ×ðµðÑðÐð (bachpan) «детство», ®ððÐð-ÑððÐð (khan-pan) «еда и питье», çððÙðÐðð «перед, встреча лицом к лицу», çððÙððÐð (saman) «вещи, багаж». Утрата произношения конечного ¡ отразилась в нескольких случаях на письме:¡Øðó, ÃðØðó и т. д. ¡×ð + èó «теперь же» (три слога) = ¡×ðþ + èó (ab-hi– два слога) = ¡Øðó (abhi). ÃðôÙèó «ты сам же» из ÃðôÙð + èó (произносимого ÃðôÙðþ + èó). Все местоимения в единственном и множественном числе в прямом или косвенном падеже могут сочетать с усилительной частицей èó: Большинство этих сложных слов подвержены правил сочетания звуков (сандхи ) [50 (c) and 9 (d)]: Ùðô»ð + èó = Ùðô»ðó, Ãðô»ð + èó = Ãðô»ðó, èÙð + èó = èÙðó, ÃðôÙð + èó = ÃðôÙèó (ÃðôÙèóü), ãðè + èó = ãðèó, Úðè + èó = Úðèó, ò¸ðÐð + èó = ò¸ðÐèó, ò¨îÐð + èó = ò¨îÐèó (ò¨îÐèóü). Но в грамотном произношении санскритских слов присущее «а» ¡ не опускается, особенно в словах, заканчивающихся на Úð или ãð, напр., ÃðÐðÚð (ta-na-ya) «сын», ÙððÐðãð (ma-na-va) «человек», или на сочетание согласных: ÑßðÜÙØð (prarambha) «начало», ÙðÐëð (mantra) «стих-заклинание», çðãðá (sarva) «все», ÏðÐÚð (dhanya) «богатый, счастливый»». (e) В стихах произношение присущего ¡ зависит от ритма и рифмы: òÇãðçð ¨îð ¡ãðçððÐð çðÙðóÑð Æðð – divas ka avasan samip tha; Вследствие опускания конечного ¡ в разговорном хинди конечная произносимая согласная предыдущего слова сливается по законам благозвучия с первой согласной следующего слова: Àð¨î (dak) «почта» + ³ðÜ (ghar) «дом», пишущиеся как Àð¨î³ðÜ «почтовое отделение», произносятся как Àð±³ðÜ (dagghar) (ср. 49-b-1); ¦¨î (ek) «один» + ±ððÀó (gari) «повозка» произносится как ¦±±ððÀÿó (eggari) (49-b-1); ¡ðÏð (adh) «половина» + çð÷Ü (ser) «сэр, ме ра ве са» (ок. 1 кг ) или «ме ра жи дкости» (ок. 1 л ) произносятся как ¡ðççð÷Ü (asser) «полу-сэр» (фунт). ÑðòÂÀÃð + ¸ðó = ÑðòÂÀ¸¸ðó «брахман или священник», (cf 49-b-5), Ñðèôüµð + ¸ððÐðð = Ñðèôû¸¸ððÐðð «прибыть» (cf 49-b-1), ÙððÜ + Àðâðð = ÙððÀþÀðâðð «убит», ýÏðÜ + âðð¡ð÷ = ýÏðââðð¡ð÷ «принеси сюда». Краткое ¡ после согласных не пишется вовсе (впрочем, можно считать, что оно обозначено присущей большинству согласных вертикальной чертой). Другие гласные после согласных заменяются особыми знаками (именуемыми матра, «мера»). Исходно это были порядковые числительные «первый» и «второй», которыми обозначались краткий и долгий гласные. Эти «меры» (долготы) пишутся слева и справа, сверху и снизу согласной. Например, k + i (¨þî + ý) пишется ò¨î, k + u (¨þî + £) пишется как ¨ôî. Матры имеют следующий вид и значение: ¡ð = ð, ý = ò, ýá = ó, £ = ô, ¤ = õ ¥ = ö, ¦ = ÷, ¦÷ = ø, ¡ð÷ = ð÷, ¡ðø = ðø. ð (¡ð), ó (ýá), ð÷ (¡ð÷) и ðø (¡ðø) пишутся после согласной, ò (ý) – перед, ô (£), õ (¤) и ö (¥) – под, а ÷ (¦) и (¦÷) – над: ¨þî + ¡ð = ¨îð ¨þî + ¥ = ¨öî ¨þî + ýá = ¨îó ¨þî + ¦ = ¨÷î ¨þî + ¤ = ¨õî (исключение: Üþ + £ = Ý, Üþ + ¤ = Þ) ¨þî + ¡ð÷ = ¨îð÷ В носовых (anunasika) знак Candra-bindu помещается над слогом: ¨ûî, ¨îðû, ¨ôîû, ¨õûî, но если слог содержит вверху матру, то вместо û пишется только точка справа от матры: ò¨üîî, ¨îóü, ¨÷üî, ¨øüî, ¨îð÷ü, ¨îðøü. (1) Висарга всегда помещается после слога на гласную: Çô:®ð (duhkh) «боль, страдание», òÐð:çðóÙð (nihsim) «безграничный». (b) Анусвара ` ü` помещается над гласной (¡ü¨î) или открытым слогом, после которого она произносится (¡ðÐðçðÇ). | ||||||||||
ГЛАВА V | ||||||||||
Две или более согласных, произносимых слитно (напр., ¨þî + ¨î = ¨þî¨î (kka), ¨þî + Úðð = ¨þîÚðð (kya) «что?»), на письме образуют особые сочетания, именуемые лигатурами. Знак Hal в примерах выше (¨þîÚðð) используется только на конце санскритских слов (ÙðèðÐðþ (mahan) «великий»). Сливаясь, согласные (чаще предшествующие) теряют часть своего алфавитного начертания: ¨þî перед другими согласными пишется как: ©Úðð (= ¨þîÚðð); но в сочетании À + Á = ÀþÁ последующая Á, пишущаяся под À, утрачивает коротенькую вертикальную черточку. В сочетании Çþ + Ùð = Ëð урезаются обе согласные. (a) Большинство предшествующих согласных в лигатуре теряют свою вертикальную черту, обозначающую присущее слоговое «а»: ±ðþ + ³ð = ±³ð, µðþ + ¶ = µ¶, Ãðþ + Æð = ÃÆð, ½ð + µð = ½µð. (b) Некоторые утрачивают только вертикальную получерту: ¨þî + Úð = ©Úð, Òþî + Úð = ÓÚð. (c) Те согласные, которые не имеют вертикальной черты (´, ¶, ¾, ¿, À, Á, Ç и è), не изменяются и и могут писаться со знаком отмены «а»: ´þ + ¨î = ´þ¨î, ¾þ + ¿ = ¾þ¿ и т.д. Часто такие закругленные согласные пишутся последовательно, но нередко одна над другой (при этом вертикальная черта может быть опущена у последующей-нижней согласной): ¾þ + ¾ =¾þ¾, ¾þ +¿ = ¾þ¿, Àþ + Á = ÀþÁ, Çþ + Ïð =Ê, ´ +¨î = ´þ¨î, èþ +Ðð = éÐð, è + ãð = éãð. Исключение: Ü перед согласной пишется над ней: Üþ + ±ð = ±ðá, Üþ + µð = µðá, Üþ + Ç = Çá. Когда же Ü следует за согласной, имеющей вертикальную черту, она пишется слева как наклонная черта: ¨þî + Ü = ªî, ¸ð + Ü = ¸ß, Çþ + Ü = Í. После ¾, ¿, À, Á, ¶ она пишется снизу как крышечка: ¾þ +Ü =¾à, Àþ +Ü = Àà. ¨þî + æð = êð (kSha). Ãð + Ü = ëð (tra). ¸ðþ + ½ð = ìð (джня, ¸½ð (jna) – правильное санскритское произношение), обычно в хинди звучит как ±Úðû (gyan) или ±Úð (gya). Иногда последние три лигатуры включаеются в алфавит. Произношение анусвары ( ü) зависит от последующей согласной и может принимать значения носового разных разрядов: ´, ½Ðð, Âð, Ðð, Ùð: ¨üî³ðð = ¨î´þ³ðð «гребешок», ¨üîµðÐð = ¨î½µðÐð «золото» и т.д. Úð и Ùð в лигатурах после согласной иногда меняют свои очертания, но остаются вполне узнаваемыми: èþ + Úð = éÚð, èþ + Ùð = éÙð, ¨þî + Úð = ©Úð, ¨þî + Ùð = ©Ùð, Çþ + Ùð = Ëð, Çþ + Úð = ÇþÚð (часто Ìð). Çþ + ãð = Î, Çþ + Ïð = Ê, Çþ + Ç = É. ³ðþ + Ðð=³Ðð или ³Ðð, ¨þî + ¨î = ©¨î или ©¨î, ¨þî + Ü = ªî или ªî, ¨þî + Ðð = ©Ðð или ©Ðð, ¨îþ + Ãð = ©Ãð или ©Ãð, ¨þî + ãð = ©ãð или ©ãð, ¨þî + âð = ©âð или ©âð, äðþ + Ü = å, äðþ + ãð = äãð или äãð, äðþ + µð = äµð или äµð, µðþ + µð = µµð или µµð, âðþ + âð = ââð или ââð, ½ð + µð = ½µð или ½µð. (a) Сочетания лигатур с матрами гласных: ¨þî + Üþ + ýá = ªîó, Ãðþ + Üþ + ýá = ëðó, ¨þî + æðþ + £ = êðô, ¨þî + Úðþ + ¡ð÷ ü= ©Úðð÷ü (kyon) «почему». çðþ + Ãðþ + Ü = çëð, ´þ + ¨þî + Ãð = ´þ©Ãð или ´©Ãð, Ððþ + Çþ + Ü = ÐÍ, Ãðþ + çðþ + Ðð = ÃçÐð, Üþ + Ãðþ + Úð = ÃÚðá, Üþ + ¨þî + æðþ + Úð = êÚðá и т.д. | ||||||||||
ГЛАВА VI | ||||||||||
(А) Носовые сочетаются с согласными своего разряда (варга ), с другими носовыми или с Úð, Ü, âð, ãð, äð, æð, çð и è. (В хинди не может быть сочетаний вроде Âðþ + ¨î или Обычными сочетаниями являются следующие: (b) Ùðþ в конце слова перед согласной превращается в анусвару: çðÙðþ + Úðð÷±ð = çðüÚðð÷±ð «сочетание, возможность», çðÙðþ + çððÜ = çðüçððÜ «мир», çðÙðþ + èðÜ = çðüèðÜ «убийство, разрушение». Анусвара произносится как ´þ перед ¨î, ®ð, ±ð, ³ð: Ñðü®ðð (pankha) «опахало», Ãðü±ð (tang) «узкий», почти как ´þ перед è: современное произношение òüçðè (sinha) «лев» – òçð´þ³ð (singha) или òüçðè (sinha); как Ùðþ перед Ñð, Òî, ×ð, Øð и ãð: µðüÑðð (campa) «цветок», Ððü×ðÜ (nambar) «номер», çðüãðÃðþ (samvat) «эра, год»; почти как ½Ððþ перед Úð: çðüÚðÙð (sanyam) «самоконтроль», çðüÚðð÷±ð (sanyog) «соединение, возможность»; как Ððþ перед остальными согласными: çðüÃð (sant) «святой», ×ðüÇÜ (bandar) «обезъяна», ¡üÀð (anda) «яйцо», çðüµðÚð (sancay) «собрание, коллекция», Ñðü¸ðð (panja) «лапа», çðüçððÜ (sansar) «мир», çðüÜêð¨î (sanraksak) «защитник, охранник», çðüâð±Ðð (sanlagn) «приложенный», çðüäðÚð (sanshay) «сомнение». Примечание: анусвара не появляется перед ´, ½Ðð и Âð. За исключением заимствованных слов анусвара не встречается после долгих гласных: ¡ðû®ð «глаз», ýá¾ «кирпич», ¤û¾ «верблюд», èðû «да», Àðü÷±ðó «каноэ», Ãð÷üÇô¡ð «леопард», Øðøüçðð «буйвол», µððüø¨îÐðð «пугаться» содержат анунасику (носовые гласные). В некоторых случаях даже исконная (санскритская) анусвара заменяется на анунаику (¨îðûçðð «бронза» восходит к санскритскому ¨îðüçÚð). Долгие гласные в хинди часто пишутся с анусварой, но произносятся как назализованные (анунасика): Ãð÷üûÇô¡ð = Ãð÷üÇô¡ð «леопард» (tEdua, а не tendua); и даже иногда краткие носовые гласные пишутся с анусварой: ¡üÏð÷Üð вместо ¡ûÏð÷Üð «темнота», ±ðüãððÜ вместо ±ðûãððÜ «rustic», ¶ü¾Ððð вместо ¶û¾Ððð «рассеиваться» и т.д. | ||||||||||
ГЛАВА VII | ||||||||||
Акцент – выделение слога более высоким тоном или напряжением (силой выдоха, громкостью). В современных европейских языках, таких как английский, русский и др., акцент представлен напряжением. Ведийский санскрит, древнегреческий и латынь имели музыкальное тоновое ударение. Каждый слог содержит только один гласный, а каждый согласный произносится с предшествущей или последующей гласной. Несколько согласных могут «принадлежать» одному и тому же самому гласному. В языке хинди разделение слова на слоги подчиняется слудующим правилам. Одна или несколько согласных в начале слова принадлежат следующему гласному: ¸ððÐðð (ja-na) «идти», Ñßðܱðó (prani) «существо, живое существо», çðôÐðð (su-na) «услышал». Согласная в конце слова «принадлежит» предшествующей гласной ¨îÙðâð (ka-mal) «лотос» (присущий букве âð звук ¡ не произносится). Вследствие утраты конечного ¡ в разговорном языке последняя согласная сцепляется (сандхи) с первой согласной следующего слова. Таким образом, Àð¨î (dak) «почта» + ³ðÜ (ghar) «дом» пишутся как Àð¨î³ðÜ «почта» и произносятся как Àð±³ðÜ (dagghar) (сравни 49-b-1); ¦¨î (ek) «один + ±ððÀó (gari) «вагон» произносятся как ¦±±ððÀÿó (eggari) (49-b-1), ¡ðÏð (adh) «половина» + çð÷Ü (ser) произносятся как ¡ðççð÷Ü (asser) (один фунт веса). Точно так же ÑðòÂÀÃð + ¸ðó = ÑðòÂÀ¸¸ðó «брахман или священник» (сравни 49-b-5), Ñðèôüµð + ¸ððÐðð = Ñðèôû¸¸ððÐðð, «достичь, прибыть», (сравни 49-b-1), ÙððÜ + Àðâðð = ÙððÀþÀðâðð («убит»), ýÏðÜ + âðð¡ð÷ = ýÏðââðð¡ð÷ «принеси сюда». Согласный внутри слова обычно принадлежит следующей гласной: çðãð÷Üð (sa-ve-ra) «утро», ÐðÇó (na-di) «река». Первая из нескольких согласных внутри слова принадлежит предыдущей гласной, а остальные – следующей: ÙðÐëðó (man-tri) «министр, секретарь», µðÐÍÙðð (can-dra-ma) «луна», ¡ÐÃÚð (an-tya) «последний, заключительный», ¡êðÜ (ak-SHa-ra) (not a-kSHa-ra) «слог», ¡òÎÃðóÚð (ad-vi-ti-ya) (not a-dvi-ti-ya) «уникальный, несравненный». Ðè, Ùè и âè – исключения из вышеприведенного правила. Фактически, их нужно рассматривать скорее как придыхательные формы Ððþ, Ùðþþ и âðþ, чем как лигатуры. Таким образом, £Ðè÷ü (u-nhe)ü (u-nhe) «к ним», ÃðôÙèðÜð (tu-mha-ra) «ваш, ваши», ¨ôîâèðÀÿó (ku-lha-ri) «топор». Однако, ÐðÐèð – nan-ha («маленький, крошечный»). Слог, заканчивающийся на согласный, называют закрытым, а заканчивающийся на гласный –открытым. Слог является долгим, если он содержит долгую гласную или является закрытым. Слог, заканчивающийся краткой гласной, является кратким. В хинди имеется силовое ударение, хотя оно не является столь же отчетливым, как, например, в европейских языках. Главные правила расстановки ударений следующие: Как правило, акцентируется только один слог. В словах из двух или более слогов акцентируется долгий. ±ðÚðð (ga-yA ) «пошел или ушедший», òµðÃðð (ci-t A ) «костер», çððÏðô (sA -dhu) «святой, святой», ýÐÇô (In -du) «луна», ¡ÐðôØðãðó (a-nu-bha-vI ) «опытный», ¡ÐðôÙð÷Úð (a-nu-me -ya) «выводимый (логически)», ¡ÐððÙðÚð (a-n A -may) «здоровье», ÇüÀòãðòÏð (dAn -da-vi-dhi) «уголовное право» и т.д. Если слово содержит больше одного долгого слога, предпоследний, если долгий, акцентируется: (¸ððÐðð) (jA -nA), «идти», ¡ðÇÙðó (Ad -mI) «человек», òâð®ðÐðð (lIkh -na) «писать», ¨îÃððá (kAr -tA) «деятель», ×ðÐÇÜ (bAn -dAr) «обезьяна», ýüÍðÂðó (In -drA-NI) «жена Индра», ¨îÜðÐðð (ka-rA-nA) «заставить сделать», ò¨îÜðÚðð (ki-rA-yA) «арендная плата или плата за проезд», ±ðôÝ¡ðÐðó (gu-ru-A-nI) «жена наставника», ¸ð±ðÙð±ððÐðð (jag-ma-gA-nA), «заставить искриться, блестеть», ¨îµðèÜó (ka-cAh-rI) «суд». Последний слог никогда не акцентируется, если, конечно, это не единственный длинный слог в слове. µðÐÍÙðð (cAn-dra-mA) «луна», çð´þ±ðòÃð (sAn-ga-ti) «компания», ÑðòãðëðÃðð (pa-vi-tra-tA) «чистота, неприкосновенность», µðÐÍÙðô®ðó (cAn-dra-mukhI) «луноликая», çððãðá¸ðòÐð¨î (sAr-wa-ja-nik) «общественный». В словах, состоящих только из кратких слогов, акцентируется предпоследний: ÙðòÃð (ma-ti) «мнение, понимание, смысл», çðôÙðòÃð (su-ma-ti) «хорошее понимание, здравый смысл», ¡òãðòÇÃð (a-vidit) «неизвестный». В слове ÙðÃðâð×ð (mAt-lAb) «цель, значение, смысл» два долгих слога (а не четыре кратких), и ударение падает на первый. Присущий ¡ никогда не опускается в первом слоге слова и в положениях, когда перед или после него имеется другой опущенный ¡: µðâð¾ð (саl-ta) «движущийся»; ¨îÙðâð (kamal) «лотос», ÐððÙð (nAm) «имя, название», ÜðÃð (rAt) «ночь», ò¨îÃðð×ð (kitAb) «книга», ØðÜÐðð (bharnA) «наполнять», çðõ®ðÐðð (sukhnA) «сушить», ¨îÜÃð×ð (kartab) «дело, поступок», ¡ðÇÙðó (AdmI) «человек», ×ðµðÑðÐð (bachpan) «детство», ®ððÐð-ÑððÐð (khAn-pAn) «пища и напиток», çððÙðÐðð (sAmnA) «встреча с глазу на глаз», çððÙððÐð (sAmAn) «материал, багаж». | ||||||||||
ГЛАВА VIII | ||||||||||
«Сандхи» (букв. «соединение звуков)» означает все изменения звуков, возникающие при их соединении для простоты произношения. В словах, заимствованных из санскрита, естественно, действуют правила санскритского сандхи. Самые важные из них даются ниже: VOWELS:- ¡ + ¡, ¡ + ¡ð, ¡ð + ¡ or ¡ð + ¡ð = ¡ð: £ + £, £ + ¤, ¤ + £ или ¤ + ¤ = ¤: ý или ýá перед любой другой гласной кроме ý или ýá изменяется в Úðþ: ¡òØð + £ÇÚð = ¡ØÚðôÇÚð «процветание».
òÑðÃðö + ¡ðìðð = òÑðëððìðð «приказ отца». ¨îÃðö + ýá = ¨îëðóü «исполнительница». Примечание: эли зия ¡ после ¦ и ¡ð÷ обычно обозначается знаком именуемым в санскрите аваграха (¡ãð±ßè): Ãð÷ + ¡òÑð = Ãð÷ òÑð; ÙðÐðð÷ + ¡Ððô¨õîâð = ÙðÐðð÷ Ððô¨õîâð. СОГЛАСНЫЕ: ¨þî, µðþ, ¾þ и Ñð перед гласной или или звонкой согласной кроме носовой изменяется в ±ðþ, ¸ðþ, Àþ и ×ðþ соответственно: ãðð¨þî + ýáäð = ãðð±ðóäð «бог речи». Ãðþ перед гласной или ±ð, ³ð, Ç, Ïð, ×ð, Øð, Úð, Ü или ãð итзменяется в Çþ: ¸ð±ðÃðþ + ýáäð = ¸ð±ðÇóäð «господь мира». (3) Ãðþ перед µð или ¶ изменяется в µðþ : £Ãðþ + äãððçð = £µ¶þãððçð «выдох». ¨þî, ¾þ, Ãðþ и Ñðþ, а также ±ðþ, Àþ, Çþ и ×ðþ перед носовой согласной изменяются в ´þ, Âð, Ððþ и Ùðþ соответственно: ãðð¨þî + ÙðÚð = ãðð´ÙðÚð «словестность, литература». ¡çðþ перед ¡ или звонкой согласной изменяется в ¡ð÷: ÙðÐðçðþ + ¡Ððô¨õîâð = ÙðÐðð÷ + ¡Ððô¨õîâð = ÙðÐðð÷Ððô¨õîâð: ГЛАСНЫЕ: ¡çðþ перед ¡ или перед звонкой согласной изменяется в ¡: ÑðÚðçðþ + ÑððÐð = ÑðÚð:ÑððÐð «молочный напиток». çðþ после гласной кроме ¡ и ¡ð и перед гласной или звонкой согласной изменяется в Üþ: ¡ðÚðôçð + ãð÷Ç = ¡ðÚðôãð÷áÇ «жизневедение, наука долголетия, медицина». çðþ после гласной кроме ¡ and ¡ð и перед ¨î, ®ð, Ñð или Òî, изменяется в æðþ: òÐðçðþ + ¨îðÙð = òÐðæ¨îðÙð «бесстрастный». В хинди, помимо этого, есть свои правила сандхи. Они, однако, не настолько четкие и их меньше, чем в санскрите. Кроме того, большая их часть работает только в разговорном языке и не отражается в письменной форме. Они пока должным образом не исследованы и не описаны. Некоторые из наиболее важных правил сандхи, действующие и в разговорном и письменном языке хинди, приведены ниже: Внутри слова ý и ýá перед ¡ð и ¡ð÷ (или ¡ðû и ¡ð÷ü) изменяются в ýÚðõ: òÃðòÆð + ¡ðû (знак мн. ч. ж. р. Существительных на -ý, ýá или Úðð: òÃðòÆð – òÃðòÆðÚððû («дата – даты»), âðÀÿ¨îó – âðÀÿò¨îÚððû («девочка – девочки»), ×ðôòÁÿÚðð – ×ðôÁÿòÚððû («старуха – старухи»). Примечание: Это правило сандхи отражает принцип произношения, который обусловливает появление между ý и любой другой гласной призвука «й» (Úðþ), отражающегося и на письме. Призвук (у или в) ãðþ, появляющийся между £ и другой гласной, в письме обчно не отражается. Долгое «у-у» (¤) перед ¦ (¦ûü) или ¡ð÷ (¡ð÷ü) становится кратким: ×ðèõ + ¦û (суфф. мн. ч.) = ×ðèô¦û «жены». ¡×ð «теперь», Ãð×ð «тогда», ¨î×ð «когда», ¸ð×ð «когда» (относительное местоим.) и çð×ð «все» перед усилительной частицей èó сливаются в одно слово, а ×ð становится придыхательной Øðó: ¡×ð + èó = ¡Øðó «прямо сейчас». Утрата присущего ¡ в вышеприведенных примерах отразилась и на письме. Еще один пример ÃðôÙèó «ты сам, вы сами» из ÃðôÙð + èó, произносимого как ÃðôÙðþ + èó.
С наречиями ýÏðÜ и £ÏðÜ частица èó пишется раздельно: ýÏðÜ èó «как раз сюда», £ÏðÜ èó «как раз туда». Частица èó после ýçð, £çð, ò¨îçð и ò¸ðçð утрачивает è, а ýá сливается с çð: ýçð + èó = ýçðó «этот самый». Все местоимения, ед. или мн. ч. прямого или косвенного падежей могут быть объединены с усилительной частицей èó: Значительная часть подобных сложных слов подвержена сандхи: Ùðô»ð + èó = Ùðô»ðó, Ãðô»ð + èó = Ãðô»ðó, èÙð + èó = (èÙðó), ÃðôÙð + èó = ÃðôÙèó (ÃðôÙèóü), ãðè + èó = ãðèó, Úðè + èó = Úðèó, Примечание: èó утрачивает è после Úðèðû «здесь», ¸ðèðû «где (относительное местоимение) ' ãðèðû «там» и ¨îèðû «где?», а ýá заменяет конечное долгое «а-а» (¡ð): Úðèðû + èó = Úðèóü «именно тут», ¸ðèðû + èó = ¸ðèóü «где бы то ни было», В некоторых санскритских словах правила сандхи видоизменяются: òçëðÚðð÷ÑðÚðð÷±ðó (striyopayogi) «подходящий или полезный для женщин» вместо правильного òçëðÚðôÑðÚðð÷±ðó. £ÑðÜð÷©Ãð (uparokt) «вышеупомянутый» вместо £ÑðÚðáô©Ãð: Присущее ¡ может произноситься, особенно на конце санскритских слов на Úð или ãð, напр., ÃðÐðÚð (ta-na-ya) «сын», ÙððÐðãð (ma-na-va) «человек», или после спаренных согласных: ÑßðÜÙØð (prarambha) «начало». ÙðÐëð (mantra) «заклинание». | ||||||||||
ИМЕНА СУЩЕСТВИТЕЛЬНЫЕ, МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ И ПРИЛАГАТЕЛЬНЫЕ
ГЛАВА IX | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ВВЕДЕНИЕ И подлежащее и сказуемое могут состоять более чем из одного слова. В предложении «Служащий принес книги» «служащий» – подлежащее, а «принес» – сказуемое. Точно так же в предложении «Некоторые из моих друзей отсутствуют сегодня» «некоторые из моих друзей» – подлежащее, а «отсутствуют» – сказуемое. В предложении «Он – мальчик» «он» – подлежащее, а – «мальчик» – сказуемое. В предложении «Он стал безумным» «он» – подлежащее, а «стал безумным» – сказуемое. (b) Глагол в хинди может быть переходным или непереходным, иметь или нет прямое дополнение. (c) Некоторые глаголы имеют два дополнения: прямое (кто? что?) и косвенное (кому? чему?). (d) Каждое слово в предложении выполняет одну из восьми функций, что обусловливает разделение слов на категории или классы, которые называют «частями речи»: Существительное, местоимение, прилагательное, глагол, наречие, послелог (соответствует предлогу в европейских языках или падежным окончаниям), союз и междометие. Существительные имеют два рода – мужской и женский, и два числа – единственное и множественное. Местоимения, как и существительные, различаются по родам, числу и падежу. Прилагательное имеет тот же самый род, число и падеж, как и существительное, которое оно определяет. Наречие – это слово, которое определяет глагол. Послелог – слово (напоминающее суффикс, окончание или предлог в европейских языках), идущее вслед за существительным и указывающее на отношение между существительным или местоимением и другим существительным, местоимением или глаголом. Падежная форма существительного или местоимения выражается с помощью «падежных послелогов» Ðð÷, ¨îð÷, çð÷, Ùð÷ü ÑðÜ и ¨îð. По происхождению или этимологии слова хинди делятся на четыре класса: Исконно индийскиеТАДБХАВА (ÃðÇþØðãð) «того же смысла», что и санскритские. Это – самый широкий пласт слов хинди, к которому принадлежат большинство существительных и прилагательных, почти все местоимения, глаголы, наречия, послелоги, союзы и междометия, пришедшие непосредственно из санскрита или через среднеиндийские языки пракриты (естественные) и апабхрамша (низкие). èðÆð «рука» из санскритского hasta; ТАТСАМА (ÃðÃçðÙð) «тот же самый», то есть заимствованный из санскрита без изменений. Это – вторая по величине группа слов в современном, в первую очередь, особенно литературном хинди. Большинство слов этого разряда – существительные и прилагательные; некоторое количество – наречия, послелоги и союзы; но едва ли здесь есть глаголы и местоимения. Üð¸ðð «царь, правитель», Øððæðð «язык», ÙððÃðð «мать», òÑðÃðð «отец», çëðó «женщина», Øðð÷¸ðÐð «еда, пища», çðü×ðüÏð «отношение, связь, ÙðÏðôÜ «конфета», çðôÐÇÜ «красивый», £ÄðÙð «превосходный», ìððÃð «известный», ¡ÃðóÃð или ØðõÃð «прошлый», ãðÃðáÙððÐð «настоящий», ØðòãðæÚð «будущий», ÑßðÚð: «часто, иногда», ¡Ãð: «поэтому», ¡Æðãðð «или» и т. д. 2 (a). АРДХА-ТАТСАМА (¡Ïðá-ÃðÃçðÙð). Это – слова, заимствованные непосредственно из санскрита, но измененные в хинди. ×ðÜçð (Skt. ãðæðá) «год», ÜÃðÐð (Skt. ÜÃÐð) «драгоценный камень», Øð±ðÃð (Skt.Øð©Ãð) «приверженец», ¨îÜÙð (Skt. ¨îÙðá) «дело, судьба», ò¨îäðÐð (Skt, ¨öîæÂð) «Krsna», Ïðóܸð (Skt. ÏðøÚðá) «терпение, храбрость», ¨îðܸð (Skt. ¨îðÚðá) «дело, занятие, обряд». Употребление большинства их ограничено разговорным языком. Некоторые имеют также соответствующую форму тадбхава иногда с модификацией значения. Таким образом, слово ¨îÜÙð имеет соответствие в виде тадбхава ¨îðÙð «работа, обязанность»; слову ¨îðܸð соответствует тадбхава ¨îð¸ð, которое используется в составе сложного слова ¨îðÙð-¨îð¸ð «деятельность, занятие». В современном литературном хинди наметилась тенденция восстанавливать оригинальные санскритские формы. ДЕШИ («местный, народный») класс включает все слова, происхождение которых неясно или неизвестно. Очень многие из них, возможно, первоначально были заимствованы из дравидских языков или языков мунда Южной Индии. Примером могут служить ¨îð÷Àÿó «счет, набор из двадцати предметов», ®ðð÷¾ «пятно», Ùðûõ±ðð «коралл» и ÁûõÁÐðð «искать» и т. д. Иностранные заимствованияВИДЕШИ («иностранный») – это заимствования из арабского, персидского, турецкого, английского, португальского, французского и других языков. Наибольшую группу составляют заимствования из персидского и английского языков. Многие из этих заимствованных слов в несколько измененной форме настолько глубоко вросли в ткань разговорного языка хинди, что порой их едва ли можно отличить от исконных слов. Арабские (главным образом, через персидский язык): ¨î×ß «могила», ®ÿðÜð×ð «плохой, испорченный», ¨îð±ðºð «бумага», ¨îðÐðõÐð «закон» и т. д. Персидские: ¨îÙðÜ «талия», ¨îÙð «меньше, недостаточный», ®ÿðð¨î «пыль», ±ðôÙð «потерянный, неизвестный», ±ðôÙð «потерянный, неизвестный, скрытый», ãððÑðçð «назад, обратно» и т. д. Турецкие: µðð¨õî «нож», Ãðð÷Ñð «орудие, оружие», âððäð «труп» и т. д. Английские: ×ð¾Ðð «кнопка», Òîóçð «плата» Ùð÷Ù×ðÜ «член», òÑðÐð «булавка», Ñð÷¾àð÷âð «бензин», Ñðôòâðçð «полиция», Ñð÷üòçðâð «карандаш», ×ðõ¾ «ботинок» и т. д… Португальские (главным образом, через бенгальский язык, гуджарати и маратхи): ¡âðÙððÜó «платяной шкаф» (порт. ал maris), «îÙðó¸ð «рубашка», (порт. camis), ¨îÙðÜð (порт. camera) «комната», Ùð÷¸ð «стол» (порт. mesa), ýçÑððÃð «сталь» (порт. espada), ÃððøòâðÚðð «полотенце» (порт. toalha) и т. д.. Французский: ¨îðÜÃðõçð «патрон» (фр. cartouche), ¡ü±ß÷¸ð «англичанин» (фр. Anglais) и т. д. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ГЛАВА X | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Имя существительное в европейских языках принято подразделять на несколько разрядов, которые иногда связаны с правилами словоупотребления, артиклями и т.д. В хинди эти подразделения вряд ли имеют какой-либо смысл. В хинди нет артиклей, нет маленьких и больших букв, все буквы во всех словах пишутся одинаково. ÜðÙð «Рама», çðóÃðð «Сита», Ùððû «мать», ×ð÷¾ð «сын», ×ð÷¾ó «дочь», âðÀÿ¨îð «мальчик», ¡ðÇÙðó «человек», ±ððÚð «корова», ¨ôîçðóá «стул», Ùð÷¸ð «стол», çðð÷Ððð «золото», µððûÇó «серебро», ³ðÜ «дом», ãðÐð «лес», çðÀÿ¨î «улица», Ç÷äð «страна», äðèÜ «город», ¤üµððýá «высота», ±ðèÜðýá «глубина», âððâðó «краснота», ×ðµðÑðÐð «детство», ¸ðãððÐðó «юность», ¸ðÐÙð «рождение», ÙðöÃÚðô «смерть», ÑðÁÿðýá «учеба», ÐðóüÇ «сон» и т. д.. Имена собственные, имена людей, названия: ÜðÙð «Рама», çðóÃðð «Сита», ÜðÙððÚðÂð «Рамаяна». Имена нарицательные: òÑðÃðð «отец», ±ðôÝ «учитель», òüüçðüè «лев», Üð¸ðð «царь», ³ðÜ «дом», ÐðÇó «река», ÑðèðÀÿ «гора», çðÙðôÍ «море», ãðÐð «лес», çðÀÿ¨î «улица», Ç÷äð «страна», äðèÜ «город» и т. д… Абстрактные существительные: ±ðôÂð «достоинство», ¡ðÇÃð «привычка», ×ðµðÑðÐð «детство», òÙðëðÃðð «дружба». Вещественные существительные: ÑððÐðó «вода», âðð÷èð «железо», çðð÷Ððð «золото», µððÚð «чай», ÇõÏð «молоко», äð©¨îÜ «сахар». Собирательные существительные: çð÷Ððð «армия», ØðóÀÿ «толпа», ¨ôî¾ôÙ×ð «семья», çðØðð «собрание, совет». Имена слегка изменяются по родам, числам и падежам. âðÀÿ¨îð «мальчик», âðÀÿ¨îó «девочка», âðÀÿ¨÷î «мальчики», âðÀÿ¨îð÷ü ¨îð÷ «мальчикам»; ÜðÃð «ночь», ÜðÃð÷ü «ночи», ÜðÃð Ùð÷ü «ночью»; ³ðÜ «дом», ³ðÜ Ùð÷ü «в доме», ³ðÜð÷ü Ùð÷ü «в домах».
В хинди два рода: мужской и женский. Частично род существительного обусловлен «естественным» делением на два пола, но частично имеет лишь условное грамматическое основание. Названия живых существ мужского рода: âðÀÿ¨îð «мальчик», ×ðøâð «бык». Названия женских существ — живых существ женского рода: âðÀÿ¨îó «девочка», ±ððÚð «корова». (b) В случае названий неодушевленных вещей и абстрактных, собирательных и нарицательных существительных род обусловлен частично грамматической формой слова (например, в случае существительных, заканчивающихся на -i, которые относятся к женскому роду), но, главным образом, использованием. Некоторые правила определение рода и образования существительных женского рода даются в Приложении II. (d) Язык хинди утратил средний род. Но его следы могут все еще обнаруживаться в местоимениях ©Úðð «что» и ¨ôî¶ «кое-что». (c) As a rule, Неодушевленный Объект Глагола: ÜðÙð Òîâð ®ððÃðð èø «Рама ест фрукты»; (e) Некоторые слова используются в общем роде: Ùðüëðó, òÙðëð и т.д.. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ГЛАВА XI | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Множественное число существительных часто используется как вежливая форма. Вежливая форма множественного числа употребляется только в прямом или именительном падеже, при этом, форму множественного числа имеют только существительные на -¡ð. £Ðð¨÷î ×ð÷¾÷ ¡ð¦ èøü «их сын пришли» (вежливо); но нельзя в этом же вежливом значении употребить выражение: £Ðð¨÷î ×ð÷¾ð÷ü ¨îð÷ ×ðôâðð¡ð÷, что будет означать «позовите их сыновей». Имея ввиду единственного сына, мы можем сказать £Ðð¨÷î ×ð÷¾÷ ¨îð÷ ×ðôâðð¡ð÷, с почтением или без него. £Ðð¨÷î ×ð÷¾÷ ×ðôâð𦠱𦠫их сын были позваны», тем не менее, правильно, так как здесь ×ð÷¾÷ стоит в прямом падеже. Слова, обозначающие почтенных родственников µððµðð, ÙððÙðð «дядя», ÇðÇð «дед» и т. д., конечно, не изменяются; только глаголы и прилагательные, связанные с ними, ставятся во мн. ч.: Ùð÷Ü÷ ¶ð÷¾÷ µððµðð ¡ð¦ èøü «пришли мой младший дядя». Существительные ж. р. также остаются неизменными, хотя глагол стоит во мн. ч.: Ùð÷Üó ÙððÃðð (а не ÙððÃðð¦û) ¡ðýá èøü «пришли моя мать»; £Ðð¨îó âðÀÿ¨îó (а не âðÀÿò¨îÚððû) ¨îèÃðó èøü «их дочь говорят». Местоимения в вежливой форме имеют мн. ч.: Úð÷ Ùð÷Ü÷ µððµðð èøü «они мои дядя (суть)». ãð÷ Ùð÷Üó ×ðÀÿó ×ðòèÐð èøü «они моя старшая сестра (суть)». Üðæ¾àÑðòÃð ¨îâð Úðèðû ¡ð Üè÷ èøü, £Ðð¨÷î çãðð±ðÃð ¨îó ÃðøÚððòÜÚððû èð÷ Üèó èøü «Президент прибывают сюда завтра. Идут приготовления к их встрече». Вещественные и собирательные существительные обычно используются только в единственном числе. Они могут иметь множественное для того, чтобы обозначить разновидности веществ или различных групп того же самого вида. Многие существительные в хинди имеют ту же самую форму в ед. и мн. числе. Смысл устанавливается из контекста, по форме глагола и т. д. ¦¨î ³ðÜ «один дом», Çð÷ ³ðÜ «два дома». Мн. число образуется согласно следующему правилу: Все существительные м.р. за исключением оканчивающихся на ¡ð во мн.ч. не изменяются: ³ðÜ «дом, дома» (ед.), ×ðøâð «бык, быки» (ед.), ¥òæð «мудрец, -ы» (ед.), çððÏðõ «святой, -ые» (ед.), Øððýá «брат, -ья» (ед.), Àð¨õî «вор, грабитель, -ы, -и» (ед.), ¸ððø «ячмень» (ед.). В существительных м.р., оканчивающихся на ¡ð, мн. ч. Образуется путем замены ¡ð на ¦: âðÀÿ¨îð «мальчик» – âðÀÿ¨÷î «мальчики»; Однако, существительные татсама на ¡ð не изменяются: Üð¸ðð «царь, цари», òÑðÃðð «отец, отцы», Úðð÷Êð «воин, воины». Существительные, указывающие на отношения родства и имеющие удвоенный слог, не изменяются: ÇðÇð «дед по отцу», ÐððÐðð «дед по матери», ¨îð¨îð или µððµðð «дядя по отцу», ÙððÙðð «дядя по матери». Но ØðÃðó¸ðð «племянник», ×ð÷¾ð «сын» и Ñðð÷Ãðð «внук» и т.д., изменяются: ØðÃðó¸ð÷ «племянники», ×ð÷¾÷ «сыны», Ñðð÷Ãð÷ «внуки» и т.д. Еще некоторые существительные также не изменяются во мн.ч.: ¡±ðô¡ð «вождь»; Ùðôò®ðÚðð «глава»; âððâðð «господин» (почтительное в некоторых кастах). Все существительные ж.р. кроме оканчивающихся на ý, ýá и Úðð, образуют множественное число путем прибавления ¦û (который не заменяет конечной гласной: âðÃðð «лиана, побег» – âðÃðð¦û «лианы»; ¨îÆðð «рассказ» – ¨îÆðð¦û «рассказы»; çð÷Ððð «армия» – çð÷Ððð¦û «армии»; ãðçÃðô «вещи» – ãðçÃðô¦û; ×ðèõ «невеста, жена» – ×ðèô¦û «невесты, жены»; âðõ «суховей» – âðô¦û «суховеи». Примечание: (i) Вместо âðÃðð¦û часто пишут âðÃððÚð÷ü и т.д… Но формы на Úð÷ü не совсем правильны. Признаком мн.ч. является ¦û, а не Úð÷ü. (ii) Обратите внимание на то, что -¤ изменяется на краткое -£ в словах наподобие ×ðèõ и âðõ. ¤ внутри слова перед ¦ (¦ûü) или ¡ð÷ (¡ð÷ü) укорачивается: ×ðèõ + ¦û = ×ðèô¦û «жены». (d) У существительных ж. р., оканчивающихся на непроизносимый -¡, ¦û добавляется к последнему согласному звуку: ×ðòèÐð (произносимое ×ðòèÐðþ) «сестра» – ×ðòèÐð÷ü «сестры»; ÜðÃð (ÜðÃðþ) «ночь» – ÜðÃð÷ü «ночи»; ±ððÚð (±ððÚðþ) «коровы» – ±ððÚð÷ü «коровы»; ¡ðû®ð (¡ðû®ðþ) «око, глаз» – ¡ðü®ð÷ü «очи» и т.д.. (e) У существительных ж. р., оканчивающихся на ý, ýá или Úðð, окончанием мн. ч. будет ¡ðû: ÜóòÃð «обычай» – ÜóòÃðÚððû; òÃðòÆð «дата» – òÃðòÆðÚððû; âðÀÿ¨îó «девочка» – âðÀÿò¨îÚððû; ÐðÇó «река» – ÐðòÇÚððû; ×ð÷ò¾ «дочь» – ×ð÷ò¾Úððû. Примечание: -ý и -ýá изменяются на -ýÚðþ-. Это обусловлено сандхи. Внутри слова -ý и -ýá перед -¡ð и -¡ð÷ (или -¡ðû и -¡ð÷ü) изменяются на –ýÚð-: òÃðòÆð + ¡ðû = òÃðòÆðÚððû; âðÀÿ¨îó – âðÀÿò¨îÚððû; ×ðôòÁÿÚðð — ×ðôÁÿòÚððû; В случае существительных на -Úðð -¡ðû сливается с конечной -¡ð: ×ðôòÁÿÚðð «старуха» – ×ðôòÁÿÚððû «старухи» – òµðòÀÿÚðð «птица» – òµðòÀÿÚððû «птицы»; ±ðôòÀÿÚðð «кукла» – ±ðôòÀÿÚððû «куклы». Это обусловлено правилом сандхи: ¡ + ¡, ¡ + ¡ð, ¡ð + ¡ или ¡ð + ¡ð = ¡ð: Слова ж.р. на -¡ð (¨îÐÚðð и т.д.) образуют мн.ч. по общему правилу: ¨îÐÚðð «девушка, дочь» – ¨îÐÚðð¦û; ØððÚððá «жена» – ØððÚððá¦û. К некоторым словам м.р., которые не изменяются во мн.ч., иногда добавляется слово âðð÷±ð «люди» для обозначения во мн. ч..: Üð¸ðð âðð÷±ð «цари» (как класс), ¡ðÚðá âðð÷±ð «арии» (как класс), çððÏðô âðð÷±ð «святые, странники» (как класс). Эти словосочетания (Üð¸ðð âðð÷±ð и т.п.) рассматриваются как одно целое, основной элемент (Üð¸ðð, çððÏðô и т.д.) не изменяется, а падежные послелоги добавляются к вспомогательному слову âðð÷±ð. Примеч.: (1) âðð÷±ð добавляется к именам, обозначающим людей. Словосочетания вроде ³ðÜ âðð÷±ð, ×ðÐÇÜ âðð÷±ð или ¸ððÐðãðÜ âðð÷±ð (³ðÜ «дом», ×ðÐÇÜ «обезьяна», ¸ððÐðãðÜ «животное») не допустимы. (2) Для той же цели, что и слово âðð÷±ð, употребляются ±ðÂð «группа», ãð±ðá «класс», ãðöÐÇ. âðð÷±ð, ãðöÐÇ и ±ðÂð имеют только мн.ч., а ãð±ðá – ед.ч.. (a) Слова м.р., обозначающие временной отрезок из нескольких месяцев или лет, оканчиваются во мн.ч. на -¡ð÷ü: ×ðÜçð «год» – ×ðÜçðð÷ü «несколько лет»; ÙðèóÐðð «месяц» – ÙðèóÐðð÷ü «несколько месяцев». Такое же окончание имеют многие круглые числительные: ÇòçðÚðð÷ü «десятки», ×ðóòçðÚðð÷ü «двацатки», ÑðµµðóòçðÚðð÷ü «двадцатьпятки», Ñðµððçðð÷ü «пятидесятки», çðø¨îÀð÷ü «сотни», è¸ððÜð÷ü «тысячи», âðð®ðð÷ü «сотни тысяч», ¨îÜð÷Àÿð÷ü «десятки миллионов», (но следующие формы не возможны – Ãðóçðð÷ü, µððâðóçðð÷ü çðð¿ð÷ü). Примечание: Ççðð÷ü «несколько десятков» – ÇòçðÚðð÷ü «десятками», ×ðóçðð÷ü «двадцатки» – ×ðóòçðÚðð÷ü «десятками, в большом количестве». Существительные, показывающие продолжительность, меру, вес и т.п., принимают подобное окончание, когда указывают на большое и неопределенное число или количество. Это -¡ð÷ü внешне похоже на окончание мн.ч. косвенного п., используемое для мн.ч. прямого п.. ÙðèóÐðð÷ü ×ðóÃð ±ð¦ «прошло несколько месяцев»; ÙðÐðð÷ü ¡Ððð¸ð «много мер зерна»; Но все эти существительные могут иметь во мн.ч. только прямую форму, когда им предшествует цифра или прилагательное, обозначающее неопределенное число: ÃðóÐð ÙðèóÐð÷ «три месяца», ¨îýá ×ðÜçð «несколько лет», Çð÷ ÙðÐð ÇõÏð «две меры молока», ÃðóÐð ±ððÀÿó ¡Ððð¸ð «три повозки зерна» и т.д.. Все окончания существительного в зависимости | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ГЛАВА XII | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ Øðõ®ð âð±ðó ` Рама почувствовал голод (себя голодным); ×ðòèÐð ¨îð÷ çðÐÃðð÷æð èô¡ð «сестра испытала удовлетворение или почувствовала себя удовлетворенной»; ãðè òÐðÏðáÐðÃðð ¨îð÷ ÑððÑð ÙððÐðÃðð èø «он расценивает (считает) бедность как грех»; Существительные, обозначающие время, когда используются адвербиально: äððÙð ¨îð÷ ¡ð¡ð÷ «приходите вечером»; Когда существительное, обозначающее время (кроме слов, обозначающих дни и даты), определяется некоторым другим словом, послелог ¨îð÷ может быть опущен (290-b): ¨îâð ÜðÃð (¨îð÷) ¨îð÷ýá ¡ðÚðð Æðð «кто-то прибыл вчера вечером»; Косвенная форма существительного выражает различные отношения с помощью послелогов, которые также называются падежными окончаниями: Ðð÷, ¨îð÷, çð÷, Ùð÷ü, ÑðÜ и ka. Например, âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ `мальчику` (âðÀÿ¨îð — мальчик), ³ðÜð÷ü Ùð÷ü `в домах` (³ðÜ — дом), äðèÜð÷ü çð÷ «из городов» (äðèÜ — город). В единственном числе, однако, все существительные кроме слов мужского рода, заканчивающиеся на -¡ð, не изменяют свою форму перед послелогами: ÜðÃð Ùð÷ü «ночью», äðèÜ çð÷ «из города», ³ðÜ ÑðÜ «дома, в доме». Все другие существительные м.р. или ж.р. остаются неизменными в ед.ч.: Øððýá ¨îð÷ «брату», ×ðòèÐð ¨îð÷ «сестре» и т.д.. Косвенные формы образуются следующим образом: В единственном числе только существительные м.р., заканчивающиеся на -¡ð, изменяют -¡ð на -¦, (таким же образом и с теми же самыми исключениями как и в случае прямого падежа множественного числа 80-b): Существительные tatsama [69 (2)], заканчивающиеся на -¡ð, не изменяются: Üð¸ðð «царь или цари», òÑðÃðð «отец или отцы», Úðð÷Êð «воин или воины». Существительные родства и имеющие повторную форму не изменяются: ÇðÇð «дедушка по отцовской линии» (-»), ÐððÐðð «дедушка со стороны матери» (-»), ¨îð¨îð или µððµðð «дядя со стороны отца» (-»), ÙððÙðð «дядя со стороны матери» (-»). Но ØðÃðó¸ðð «племянник», ×ð÷¾ð «сын» и Ñðð÷Ãðð «внук» и др., не имеющие повторной формы, изменяются как обычно: ØðÃðó¸ð÷ «племянники», ×ð÷¾÷ «сыны», Ñðð÷Ãð÷ «внуки» и т.д.. Еще несколько существительных также не изменяются во множественном числе: ¡±ðô¡ð «лидер, вождь» (-»); Ùðôò®ðÚðð «глава»; âððâðð «господин» (вежливое в некоторых кастах). Все другие существительные м. и ж.р. остаютсянеизменными в единственном числе: Øððýá ¨îð÷ «брату», ×ðòèÐð ¨îð÷ «сестре» и т.д.. Во множественном числе все существительные м.р. и ж.р. имеют окончание -¡ð÷ü, перед которым может появляться призвук -Úð-. (существительные м.р. на -¡ð вроде âðÀÿ¨îð заменяют -¡ð на -¡ð÷ü): äðò©ÃðÚðð÷ü ¨îð÷ «способностям, силам»; âðÀÿò¨îÚðð÷ü ¨îð÷ «девочкам»; ×ðòèÐðð÷ü ¨îð÷ «сестрам»; но Üð¸ðð¡ð÷ü ¨îð÷ «царям»; òÑðÃðð¡ð÷ü ¨îð÷ «отцам». ÐððÐðð¡ð÷ü ¨îð÷ «дедушкам по матери», µððµðð¡ð÷ü ¨îð÷ «дядьям по отцу», ÙððÙðð¡ð÷ü ¨îð÷ «дядьям по матери», а также Üð¸ðð âðð÷±ðð÷ü ¨îð÷ «царям». -ý и -ýá (в таких словах как äðò©Ãð и âðÀÿ¨îó) заменяется на –ýÚðþ, а -¤ (в таких словах как ×ðèõ) укорачивается. В косвенных формах, таким образом, есть только две модификации: (1) В ед.ч. м.р.: -¡ð меняется на -¦. Изменения существительных ед. и мн. ч. Прямой Косвенный Ед. Мн. 1. М.р. на -¡ð — ¦ -¦ — ¡ð÷ü 3. Ж.р. на -ý, -ýá и -Úðð — ¡ðû — 4. Ж.р. (все остальные) — ¦û- — Следует отметить, что в ед.ч. в косвенном падеже есть только одно изменение -¡ð на -¦ в м.р… Во мн.ч. все существительные в косвенном падеже имеют окончание -¡ð÷ü. Также окончание -¡ð÷üпоявляется в прямом падеже во мн.ч. у существительных ж.р. на -ý, -ýá и –Úðð. Все остальные существительных ж.р. оканчиваются на -¦û. Однако, есть исключение: в параграфе 83 приводится случай, когда -¡ð÷ü образует прямой падеж во мн. ч.. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ГЛАВА XIV | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Прямой падеж (то есть немодифицированная словарная форма существительного без окончаний) используется для обозначения следующих грамматических отношений: Подлежащее (рассмотрению) при лаголе: âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ðÃðð èø «мальчик приходит, приезжает»; С прошедшим причастием переходного глагола (57), подлежащее имеет косвенную форму с послелогом Ðð÷: âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð ÑðÁÿó «мальчик прочитал книгу». âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ Òîâð ®ððÚðð «мальчик съел фрукты»; Но подлежащее при непереходном глаголе в прошедшем времени имеет прямую форму: âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ðÚðð «мальчик пришел»; Исключения: a) Несколько переходных глаголов, таких как âððÐðð «приносить», ØðõâðÐðð «забывать», ×ðð÷âðÐðð «говорить», не употребляются с Ðð÷; в то время как с глаголами çðÙð»ðÐðð «понимать» и ×ð¨îÐðð «болтать» употребление Ðð÷ возможно. âðÀÿ¨îð ò¨îÃðð×ð âððÚðð «мальчик принес книгу»; (b) Существительное в роли именной части сказуемого: cлово «отсутствующие» в предложении «мои друзья являются отсутствующими» и «мальчик» в предложении «он – мальчик» – это именные части сказуемого. ÜðÙð âðÀÿ¨îð èø «Рама – мальчик»; (c) Как правило, неодушевленный объект глагола: ÜðÙð Òîâð ®ððÃðð èø «Рама ест фрукты»; [ Мы имеем в этих примерах признание среднего («неодушевленного») рода, который, иначе, был бы совсем потерян в языке хинди. В санскрите формы существительных субъекта и объекта среднего рода идентичны. Кроме того, одушевленный объект глагола, если он указывает на некое существо без каких-либо уточнений. (Конкретный одушевленный объект см. 94 (d)]. âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ ×ðôâðð¡ð÷ «Позовите мальчика»; Ùðøü Ðððø¨îÜ ®ðð÷¸ðÃðð èõû «Я ищу (какого-нибудь) слугу» (не конкретного слугу). Ðððø¨îÜ ¨îð÷ ×ðôâðð¡ð÷ «Позовите слугу»; £çðÐð÷ äð÷Ü Ððèóü Ç÷®ðð «Он никогда не видел льва»; Любое прямое дополнение (одушевленное или неодушевленное). Некоторые глаголы имеют два дополнения: так, в предложении «Я дал ему две книги» слово «книги» является прямым дополнением, а «ему» – косвенным. (В большинстве таких случаев, прямое дополнение отвечает на вопрос «что, кого?», а косвенное – «кому, чему?») ÙðøÐð÷ ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ³ðð÷Àÿð òÇÚðð «Я дал Раме лошадь»; Предикативное существительное, определяющее дополнение: ÑðòêðÚðð÷ü Ðð÷ èüçð ¨îð÷ Üð¸ðð µðôÐðð «Птицы выбрали лебедя своим царем»; | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
CHAPTER XV | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Послелоги или падежные окончания Как отмечалось выше (88), косвенная форма существительного выражает грамматические отношения с помощью «падежных окончаний» Ðð÷, ¨îð÷, çð÷, Ùð÷ü, ÑðÜ и ¨îð. Они всегда помещаются после склоняемого существительного или местоимения. Их можно, поэтому, назвать «послелогами», в отличие от предлогов, которые помещаются перед существительным или местоимением. Примечание: Падежные окончания всегда пишутся отдельно от существительного (как, например, ÜðÙð Ðð÷, çðóÃðð ¨îð÷ и т.д.) но слитно с местоимениями (ÙðøÐð÷, £çð¨îð÷, ò¨îçð¨îð, ÃðôÙðçð÷, ò¸ðçðÙð÷ü и т.д.). Ðð÷ соответствует окончанию творительного падежа, а существительное с ним называет деятеля, т.е. того, кто осуществил действие над каким либо объектом (действие в прошедшем времени передается прошедшим или страдательным причастием): âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ Òîâð ®ððÚðð «Мальчик съел плод» (букв. Плод съеден мальчиком); Но подлежащее при непереходном глаголе в прошедшем времени имеет прямую форму: âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ðÚðð «Мальчик пришел»; Исключения: Несколько переходных глаголов, таких как âððÐðð «приносить», ØðõâðÐðð «забывать», ×ðð÷âðÐðð «говорить», не допускают употребления подлежащего с Ðð÷; в то время как çðÙð»ðÐðð «понимать» и ×ð¨îÐðð «болтать» употребляются с и без Ðð. Корни âðð «приносить», Øðõâð «забывать», çðÙð»ð «понимать», ×ð¨î «болтать», ×ðð÷âð «молвить, говорить», âðÀÿ «бороться», ÀÜ «бояться», òÙðâð «встречать» образуют субъектную конструкцию в прошедшем времени несмотря на то, что являются переходными. Тем не менее, âðð «приносить», фактически, состоит из âð÷ «брать» + ¡ð «приходить»; а так как ¡ð непереходный глагол, он определяет характер конструкции âðð. Предложение вроде ãðè ò¨îÃðð×ð âððÚðð может интерпретироваться как ãðè ò¨îÃðð×ð âð÷ (¨îÜ) ¡ðÚðð «Он пришел, взявши книгу». Важно помнить, что, переходным или непереходным является главный корень, составной глагол допускает объектную конструкцию (с причастием прошедшего времени) только в том случае, если вспомогательный глагол переходен. Таким образом: Ùðøü Ðð÷ µððÚð Ñðó «Я пил чай» (объектная конструкция); Но, Ùðøü µððÚð Ñðó µðô¨îð «Я закончил пить чай» (субъектная конструкция, т.к. µðô¨îð – непереходный глагол). Главный глагол: корень (абсолютивная форма). В составных глаголах этого класса главный глагол имеет абсолютивную форму без ¨îÜ (243), которая тождественна его корню и является неизменной. Вспомогательными глаголами, обычно используемыми, являются следующие: (a) Øðõâð «забывать» – обычно используется в сочетании с ¸ðð «идти», который является непереходным и, поэтому, придает конструкции субъектный характер: конструкция ÜðÙð Úðè ×ððÃð Øðõâð ±ðÚðð «Рама это (дело) забыл» намного чаще встречается, чем ÜðÙð Úðè ×ððÃð Øðõâðð. ÜðÙð Øðõâðð или Ùðøü Øðõâðð, фактически, означает «Рама допускал ошибку» или «я допускал ошибку», где Øðõâðð – непереходный глагол. Важно помнить, что, переходен ли главный корень или непереходен, составной глагол допускает объективную конструкцию (с причастием прошедшего времени) только в том случае, если вспомогательный глагол является переходным. Таким образом: ×ð¨î и ×ðð÷âð используются и как переходные и как непереходные глаголы. В предложении ãðè ×ð¨îð «он болтал» ×ð¨î является непереходным, а в £çðÐð÷ ×ðèôÃð ¨ôî¶ ×ð¨îð «он наговорил много глупостей (много ерунды)» – переходным. В предложении «ãðè ×ðð÷âðð» глагол ×ðð÷âð – непереходный. В предложении £çðÐð÷ »ðõ¿ ×ðð÷âðð «он сказал ложь» ×ðð÷âð – переходный глагол. Однако, »ðõ¿ ×ðð÷âðð является также распространенным выражением. çðÙð»ð входит в обе конструкции: Ùðøü çðÙð»ðð, ÙðøüÐð÷ çðÙð»ðð «Я подумал» или «Я понял». ÀÜ, âðÀÿ ÿ и òÙðâð считают непереходными глаголами. «Дополнения» при этих глаголах употребляются с послелогом çð÷, который имеет значение предлога «от» или «(вместе) с»:
âðÀÿ, однако, является переходным с родственным объектом (165-c): £çðÐð÷ ¨îýá âðÀÿðýÚððü âðÀÿóü «Он сразился в нескольких сражениях». Опускание Ðð÷ в вышеупомянутых глаголах может частично происходить из-за влияния диалекта. âðÀÿ¨îð ò¨îÃðð×ð âððÚðð «Мальчик принес книгу»; (a) Причастие прошедшего времени сформировано, прилагая ¡ð к корню:
(b) Однако, в корнях, заканчивающихся на -¤ и -ýá эти гласные перед -¡ð укорачиваются, а в случае с корнями на -ýá вставляется призвук -Úð между корнем и ¡ð. Таким образом,
(d) Исключения
¨îð÷ ¨îð÷ используется для обозначения дательного падежа: ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ Øðõ®ð âð±ðó «Рама почувствовал голод (букв. Раме почувствовался голод); ×ðòèÐð ¨îð÷ çðÐÃðð÷æð èô¡ð Сестра почувствовала удовлетворение» (букв. Сестре было удовлетворение); âðÀÿ¨÷ ¨îð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð òÙðëð òÙðâðð «Мальчику повстречался его друг» Но âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ÑðÐð÷ òÙðëð çð÷ òÙðâðð «Мальчик встретился со своим другом». ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ÇÂÀ òÙðâðð «Раме досталось наказание» (Рама был наказан); âðÀÿ¨îó ¨îð÷ µðð÷¾ ¡ðýá «Девочке достался ушиб» (Девочка ушиблась); èð÷Ððð, ¡ðÐðð, âð±ðÐðð и ÜèÐðð формируют непереходные сложные глаголы с пассивным (страдательным) значением, хотя по форме выглядят активными глаголами действительного залога. Действие, состояние и т.д., обозначенное ими, предстает как испытанное, перенесенное, обладаемое, чувствуемое и т.д. или случающееся с дополнением, стоящим в косвенном падеже с послелогом ¨îð÷ или окончанием -¦. Независимо от того, что субъект переносит или испытывает, независимо от того, что случается с ним, процесс предстает как имеющий место сам по себе, а не как производимый кем-то. То, что испытавается, стоит в прямом падеже, а глагол согласуется с этим существительным. (a) ÑðÀÿÐðð и èð÷Ððð в сочетании с инфинитивом обозначают «потребность, обязательство, требование» и т.д. ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ¸ððÐðð ÑðÀÿð «Раме пришлось уйти»; Однако, когда инфинитив является переходным глаголом, то он используется как прилагательное к своему дополнению и изменяет свое окончание -Ððð на -Ððó или –ne, в зависимости от рода дополнения. Вспомогательные глаголы также согласуются с дополнением в числе и роде. âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ Çãðð ÑðóÐðó ÑðÀÿ÷±ðó «Мальчику придется выпить лекарство». Заметьте ! Неправильно выражаться так: ×ðµµð÷ ¨îð÷ Çãðð ÑðóÐðó ÑðÀÿó или Ùðô»ð÷ ÃðóÐð Ñðëð òâð®ðÐðð Æðð, как частенько можно слышать по аналогии с непереходными инфинитивами (¸ððÐðð ÑðÀÿ÷±ðð, ¸ððÐðð Æðð и т.д.). µððòè¦ «нужно» или «надо» сочетается с уществительным или инфинитивом. Дополнение в дательном падеже оканчивается на ¨îð÷ или -¦: ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü µððòè¦ «Раме нужны книги»; ÃðôÙè÷ü ©Úðð µððòè¦ «Что тебе нужно?» Одушевленный предмет, обозначающий конкретное существо: âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ ×ðôâðð¡ð÷ «Позови мальчика!» Но: Çð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü ®ðÜóÇð÷ «Купи две книги» (неодушевленные предметы); Ùðøü Ðððø¨îÜ ®ðð÷¸ðÃðð èõû «Я ищу слугу» (но не конкретного). Дополнение в нейтральной конструкции ÜðÙð Ðð÷ âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ Ç÷®ðð «Рама увидел мальчика», Прямое дополнение (обычно неодушевленное): Ùððü âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ Òîâð Ç÷Ãðó èø «Мать дает фрукты мальчику»; Дополнение при глаголе, требующем предикативного слова (связанного по смыслу с дополнением): ãðè òÐðÏðáÐðÃðð ¨îð÷ ÑððÑð ÙððÐðÃðð èø «Он считает бедность грехом»; Существительные, обозначающие время, когда они используются адвербиально: äððÙð ¨îð÷ ¡ð¡ð÷ «Приходи вечером»; Когда существительное, обозначающее время, определяется некоторым другим словом, ¨îð÷ может быть опущен, кроме случаев, когда он употребляется со словами, обозначающими дни и даты: ¨îâð ÜðÃð (¨îð÷) ¨îð÷ýá ¡ðÚðð Æðð «Кто-то прибыл вчера вечером»; Употребление ¨îð÷. Местоимение, указывающее на человека, когда используется как дополнение всегда требует ¨ ð÷ или его эквиваленты -¦ или -èøü. Мы можем сказать ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ãðè âðÀÿ¨îð Ç÷®ðð (объектная конструкция) или ÜðÙð Ðð÷ £çð âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ Ç÷®ðð (нейтральная конструкция). Но мы не можем сказать ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ãðè Ç÷®ðð. Когда ãðè относится к âðÀÿ¨îð и т.д., мы должны сказать ÜðÙð Ðð÷ £çð÷ (£çð¨îð÷) Ç÷®ðð. Это происходит вследствие того, что £çð÷ или £çð¨îð÷ указывает на конкретного человека. Следовательно, выражение ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ãðè âðÀÿ¨îð Ç÷®ðð является небрежным. (b) Выражения ÑðÃÆðÜð÷ü ¨îð÷ Ò÷üî¨î òÇÚðð ±ðÚðð, Ùð¨îðÐðð÷ü ¨îð÷ ò±ðÜð òÇÚðð ¸ðð¦ и т.д. являются формальными, хотя и часто встречаются. Неодушевленные предметы должны использоваться без ¨îð÷ (ÑðÃÆðÜ Ò÷îü¨î òǦ ±ð¦, Ùð¨îðÐð ò±ðÜð òǦ ¸ðð¦û) за исключением переходных глаголов с неполной предикацией вроде ÑðÃÆðÜð÷ü ¨îð÷ èóÜð ×ðÐðð òÇÚðð ±ðÚðð, Ùð¨îðÐðð÷ü ¨îð÷ »ðð÷üÑðòÀÿÚðð ÙððÐð òâðÚðð ±ðÚðð. (a) ¨îð÷ (-¦, -è÷ü) обычно указывает на адресат поздравления, уважения, приветствия, благодарности, осуждения и т.д. (с или без глагола, требующего двух дополнений). ±ðôÞ ¨îð÷ ÑßÂððÙð – поклон наставнику! ¡ðÑð¨îð÷ ×ðÏððýá – поздравление Вам! ýáäãðÜ ¨îð÷ ÏðÐÚðãððÇ – благодарение богу! òÏð©¨îðÜ èø ÃðôÙè÷ü – порицание (проклятие) тебе! (b) ¨îð÷ (-¦, -è÷ü) указывает на человека, испытывающего беспокойство, несущего потери и т.д. ÃðôÙè÷ü ýçðçð÷ ©Úðð ÙðÃðâð×ð? – А тебе какое дело до этого (а тебе что от этого)? ¡ðÑð¨îð÷ ©Úðð ÑðÀÿó èø? Почему Вы беспокоитесь (что на Вас нашло)? ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ âððØð èô¡ð (èðòÐð èôý)á – Рама оказался в выигрыше (в проигрыше) – букв. Раме была удача (неудача). çð÷ çð÷ сосответствует окончанию творительного падежа и используется для обозначения деятеля при безличном глаголе или глаголе в страдетельном залоге (171): ÜðÙð çð÷ Ñðëð Ððèóü òâð®ðð ¸ððÃðð – Рама неспособен написать письмо (письмо не пишется Рамой). âðÀÿ¨÷î çð÷ ÇðøÀÿð Ððèóü ±ðÚðð – Мальчик не мог бежать (букв. мальчиком не бежалось). Косвенные дополнения (которые обычно обозначают людей) глаголов, означающих «сказать, говорить, просить, требовать, вопрошать»: Øððýá Ðð÷ ÜðÙð çð÷ ¨îèð ò¨î… – Брат сказал Раме, что... Средство, инструмент или деятеля: ÃððÜ çð÷ çðÙððµððÜ Çð÷ – пошлите новости телеграммой! (c) Это правило, однако, применимо только к таким каузальным глаголам, которые обозначают реальную деятельность со стороны субъекта, а не просто каузальность (побуждение к совершению чего-либо). Там, где выражается просто побуждение к действию, косвенное дополнение, обозначающее исполнителя (деятеля), стоит в косвенном падеже с послелогом çð÷:
В случае глагола типа (b) оригинальный субъект и объект остаются тем, чем они были в первом каузале, а именно, вторичным объектом и первичным объектом, в то время как субъект первого каузального глагола имеет послелог çð÷:
Образ действия: ÏÚððÐð çð÷ çðôÐðð÷ Слушайте со вниманием (внимательно!). ãðè ¨îò¿ÐðÃðð çð÷ ¡ð ÑððÚðð Он смог приехать с некоторыми трудностями. Причина, происхождение: ÏðõÑð çð÷ ÑðÄð÷ çðõ®ÿð ±ðÚð÷ Листья усохли от солнечного тепла. Ассоциация, антагонизм: Ùðð÷èÐð Ùðô»ðçð÷ òÙðâðð Мохан встретился со мной. Разделение или отделение: Ñð÷Àÿ çð÷ ÑðÄðð ò±ðÜð Лист упал с дерева. Çôæ¾ð÷ü çð÷ ×ðµðð÷ Держись подальше от грешников! Отправная точка (места или времени): ÐðÇó äðèÜ çð÷ ÇõÜ èø Река далеко от города. Длительность действия (в отношении настоящего или прошлого): ãðè µððÜ çððâð çð÷ Úðèðû èø Он здесь четыре года. ÙðøüÐð÷ Çð÷ òÇÐð çð÷ ¨ôî¶ Ððèóü ®ððÚðð Æðð Я не ел ничто два дня. Различие или сравнение между двумя человеками или предметами Úðè çÚððèó £çðçð÷ ¡âð±ð èø Эти чернила отличаются от этих. ÜðÙð Ùðð÷èÐð çð÷ ×ðÀÿð èø Рама старше Мохана. Косвенные дополнения (которые являются обычно людьми) глаголов, означающих «сказать», «говорить», «просить», «выпрашивать», «требовать», «запрашивать»: Øððýá Ðð÷ ÜðÙð çð÷ ¨îèð ò¨î… Брат сказал Раме, что… ÜðÙð çð÷ ¶ð÷¾ð Моложе чем Рама. Ùð÷ü Ùð÷ü используется для обозначения: (a) Местоположение или присутствие (чего-нибудь) в или в пределах чего-нибудь: Ùð÷Üð ³ðÜ äðèÜ Ùð÷ü èø Мой дом находится в городе. Ùððû ³ðÜ Ùð÷ü èø Мать находится в доме. µððÚð Ùð÷ü äð©¨îÜ Ððèóü èø В чае нет сахара. Длительность: Úðè ò¨îÃðð×ð ÙðøüÐð÷ ÃðóÐð òÇÐð Ùð÷ü ÑðÁÿó Я прочитал эту книгу за три дня. Цена: Ñðøüòçðâð ÃðóÐð ¡ðÐð÷ Ùð÷ü ¡ðÃðó èø – Карандаш стоит три аны; ýÐð âðÀÿ¨îð÷ü Ùð÷ü ÜðÙð çð×ðçð÷ ¡µ¶ð èø – Рама является лучшим из этих мальчиков. ¡ðÇÿÙðó ¡ðÇÿÙðó Ùð÷ü ¡ÐÃðÜ èø – Есть различие между человеком и человеком. ÑðÜ ÑðÜ обозначает местоположение или положение на или на поверхности чего-либо: ò¨îÃðð×ð Ùð÷ºð ÑðÜ èø – Книга находится на столе. Úðèðû çð÷ ¦¨î Ùðóâð ÑðÜ – На расстоянии одной мили отсюда. Момент времени, в который происходит действие: Ùðøü ¿ó¨î çðÙðÚð ÑðÜ Ñðèôüµðð – Я прибыл в нужное время. Ü÷âð Çð÷ ×ð¸ð¨îÜ Ççð òÙðÐð¾ ÑðÜ ¡ðÃðó èø – Поезд прибывает в два часа десять минут. Последовательность действий или событий: ãðèðû ¸ððÐð÷ ÑðÜ ÙðøüÐð÷ Ç÷®ðð… – Придя туда, я увидел… Причина или повод: ãðè µðð÷Üó ¨îÜÐð÷ ÑðÜ òÐð¨îðâðð ±ðÚðð – Он был уволен по совершении кражи (за то, что совершил кражу). (e) Дополнения (составных) глаголов, обозначающих милосердие, веру, уверенность, гнев и т.д.: ¸ðóãðð÷ü ÑðÜ ÇÚðð ¨îÜð÷ – Будь милосерден к животным. ¨îð ¨îð является послелогом родительного падежа. Если определяемое существительное, которое следует за ним, женского рода (ед. или мн. ч.), ¨îð изменяется на ¨îó; если же мужского рода и множественного числа, то ¨îð изменяется на ¨ ÷. Владение и отношения принадлежности: ÜðÙð ¨îð Øððýá – Брат Рамы. Материал или состав: çðð÷Ðð÷ ¨îð ¨îÀÿð – Браслет из золота. ÑðÃÆðÜ ¨÷î Ùð¨îðÐð – Дом из камня. Ценность и мера (место или время): ¦¨î ÝÑðÚð÷ ¨îó äð©¨îÜ – Сахар по цене рупия. Источник, происхождение, причина: ¨îðòâðÇðçð ¨÷î Ððð¾¨î – Пьесы Калидасы. Определение: Ðððø¨îÜ ¨îð ¨îðÙð – Работа слуги. ×ðµµðð÷ü ¨îó òäðêðð – Образование детей. Часть целого: Üð÷¾ó ¨îð ¾ô¨îÀÿð – Кусок хлеба. Цель: ÑðóÐð÷ ¨îð ÑððÐðó – Вода для питья. Особенность: ×ðµµð÷ ¨îó çðÜâðÃðð – Невиновность ребенка. Заметьте: Существительное или местоимение, к которому относится ¨îð, ведет себя как прилагательное на -¡ð и определяет существительное, которое следует за ним. ¨îð, поэтому, изменяется как окончание -¡ð в прилагательном, согласуясь с последующим существительным в числе, роде и падеже. Косвенные формы местоимений на -¡ð, а именно, ýçð¨îð, £çð¨îð, ò¨îçð¨îð, Ùð÷Üð, Ãð÷Üð, èÙððÜð, ÃðôÙèðÜð и ¡ÑðÐðð (кроме выражения ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¡ðÑð) и т.д., используются всегда как прилагательные. Фактически, наклонные формы всех Существительных с ¨î ð можно также рассмотреть, поскольку Притяжательное Прилагательное изменяется на — ýá и — ¦. Заметьте: ¡ÑðÐðð используется также как усилительное (или эмфатическое) прилагательное, когда оно следует за существительным или местоимением с -¨îð или -Üð и означает «собственный». Формы местоимений на -¨îð или -Üð, определяющие подлежащее, всегда заменяются рефлексивным ¡ÑðÐðð. ¡ÑðÐðð «собственный» (со своими модификациями ¡ÑðÐðó и ¡ÑðÐð÷), фактически, – прилагательное от ¡ðÑð и используется как таковое. âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ÑðÐðó ò¨îÃðð×ð Ùððü±ðÃðð èø – Мальчик просит свою книгу. âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐðó Ùððü çð÷ ¨îèð – Мальчик сказал своей матери. ÜðÙð ¡ÑðÐðð (а не £çð¨îð) Ñðð¿ ÑðÁÿÃðð èø – Рама читает свой урок. Отметьте различие Ùðøü £çðçð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ³ðÜ ÑðÜ òÙðâðð – Я встретил его в своем доме. (Ùðøü– подлежащее). ¡ÑðÐðð (возвратное местоимение ведет себя как прилагательное. Оно заменяет притяжательные местоимения Ãð÷Üð твой, Ùð÷Üð мой, ÃðôÙèðÜð твой (вежл.), £çð¨îð его и т.д.) во всех случаях, когда они определяют логическое подлежащее в предложении (или «деятель»), находится ли это логическое подлежащее в прямом или косвенном падеже с Ðð÷ или çð÷ (в страдательном залоге) или с ¨îð÷. В прямом или косвенном падеже с Ðð÷ логическое подлежащее совпадает с грамматическим: Ùðøü ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ¨îÜÃðð èõü – Я делаю свою работу. ÙðøüÐð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ò¨îÚðð – Мною сделана моя работа. Ùðô»ð¨îð÷ (Ùðô»ð÷) ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ¡µ¶ð âð±ðÃðð èø – Мне моя работа нравится. Ùðô»ðçð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð Ððèóü èð÷Ãðð – Мною моя работа не делается. Во всех четырех предложениях местоимение ¡ÑðÐðð заменило Ùð÷Üð. Но в предложении наподобие – Ùðô»ðçð÷ Ùð÷Ü÷ Øððýá Ðð÷ ¨îèð – Мне мой брат сказал – Ùð÷Ü÷ не может быть заменено на ¡ÑðÐð÷. ¡ÑðÐðð иногда используется для обозначения ÃðôÙèðÜð (или Ãð÷Üð) = + èÙððÜð (или Ùð÷Üð) в таких предложениях как: Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð ¡ÑðÐðð èó èø – Этот дом наш (ваш и мой), где говорящий человек включен в ¡ÑðÐðð либо фактически, или из дружелюбия, или смирения со стороны говорящего (дом, фактически, принадлежит одному говорящему). Дальнейшее расширение «дружелюбия или смирения» достигается во фразе: Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð ¡ðÑð¨îð èó èø (Этот дом ведь Ваш) вместо Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð Ùð÷Üð èø (Этот дом мой). Однако, ¡ÑðÐðð используется как усилительное прилагательное (собственный), определяющее формы на -¨îð или –Üð, за которыми оно неизменно следует: ÜðÙð ¨îð ¡ÑðÐðð ³ðÜ – собственный дом Рамы; Ùð÷Üó ¡ÑðÐðó ò¨îÃðð×ð – моя собственная книга; ÃðôÙèðÜ÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¨îÑðÀÿ÷ – твоя собственная одежда и т.д.. (a) Adjectives ending in ¡ð (including Possessive Adjectives change to ýá when qualifiying a Feminine Nown in any case or number: ¡µ¶ð âðÀÿ¨îð `a good boy`, but ¡µ¶ó âðÀÿ¨îó `a good girl`; ¡µ¶ó âðÀÿò¨îÚððü, ¡µ¶ÿó âðÀÿ¨îó ¨îð÷, ¡µ¶ó âðÀÿò¨îÚðð÷ü ¨îð÷, similarly Ùð÷Üó ò¨îÃðð×ð, Ùð÷Üó ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü, Ùð÷Üó ò¨îÃðð×ð Ùð÷ü, Ùð÷Üó ò¨îÃðð×ðð÷ü Ùð÷ü etc. The ¡ð changes to ¦ when the Adjective is qualifying a Masculine Noun either in the oblique form or in the Plural (Direct Oblique): ¡µ¶÷ÿ âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷, ¡µ¶÷ âðÀÿ¨÷î `good boys`, ¡µ¶÷ âðÀÿ¨îð÷ü ¨îð÷, Ùð÷Ü÷ Øððýá ¨îð÷, Ùð÷Ü÷ Øððýáû ` my brothers`, Ùð÷Ü÷ ØððýüÚðð÷ü ¨îð÷ etc. A few A¡ð — Adjectives are excepted from this rule: çðãðð `one and a quarter`, ×ðòÁÿÚðð`of superior quality`, ³ðò¾Úðð `of inferior quality`, £ÙðÇð `nice`, Çôò®ðÚðð `unhappy, unfortunate`. All the other Adjectives (âððâð `red`, ØððÜó `heavy` etc.) remain unchanged: âððâð ¨îÑðÀÿð (masc.) `red cloth`, âððâð ¨îÑðÀÿ÷, `red cloths`, âððâð çððÀÿó `red sari`. Case-signs are attached only to the Nouns, the Adjective having only the oblique form: ¡µ¶÷ âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷, Ùð÷Ü÷ Øððýá çð÷, èÙððÜ÷ äðèÜ Ùð÷ü, £çð ¡ðÇÙðó çð÷, Ùðô©Ãð ÇóÐð ÑðÜ, èÙð ±ðÜó×ðð÷ü ¨îð÷ but see :- Adjectives denoting quality, number and quantity may be used as Nouns, when they are affected by Case and Number in the same way as Nouns ×ðÀÿð÷ü Ðð÷, ¶ð÷¾ð÷ü çð÷, ýÃðÐð÷ çð÷, ¦¨î Ðð÷, µððÜ Ðð÷, ×ðèôÃðð÷ü ¨îð÷, ¶ð÷ò¾Úðð÷ü ¨îð÷, ×ðôÜó çð÷; ¡ÑðÐðð used as a Noun denotes `a thing`, or person belonging to oneself, ¨ôî¶., however, does not change: ¨ôî¶ Ùð÷ü (Plural). (a) attached to the oblique form of a Noun or a Pronoun denotes `like`, which then functions as an Adjective: ±ððÚð-çðð cow-like`, ¨ôîÄð÷-çðð `dog-like`, Ùðô»ð-çðð `me-like`, ÃðôÙð-çðð `you-like`, £Ðð-çðð `them-like`. The çðð of these Adjectives changes in the oblique and the Feminine like ordinary ¡ð-Adjectives. For further use of ¨îð, See:- A Noun or Pronoun + ¨îð and the corresponding forms of Ùð÷Üð, Ãð÷Üð etc. are, in fact, adjectives (eding in- ¡ð). ÜðÙð ¨îó ò¨îÃðð×ð is `Ram-owned book`, and çðð÷Ðð÷ ¨îð ¨îÀÿð is `gold-made bangle`. It is due to the adjectival nature of these ¨îð, Üð forms that they change to ¨îó, Üó, ¨÷î and Ü÷ as all -¡ð ending adjectives do. Vocative Case The vocative case, i.e., the form of a Noun used for addressing or calling a person, such as Ram, come here! has no relation with the other words in the sentence. Ram is, in fact, itself an independent sentence conveying such ideas as `listen to me`, `pay attention!`, `be careful!` `don`t do it!` etc. in accordance with the situation and teh intonation of the vocative word. The vocative form is identical with the oblique, except that in the plural, ¡ð÷ü loss its nasalization. There are no case-signs but certain Interjections (¡ð÷) âðÀÿ¨÷î! Boy!` (¡ð÷) âðÀÿ¨îð÷ `Boys!` (¦) âðÀÿ¨îó! Girl!` (¡ð÷) âðÀÿò¨îÚðð÷ `Girls!` è÷ ýáäãðÜ! `O God!` ¡Ü÷ Ððóµð `O wretch!`. But µððµðð! `Uncle!` ÇðÇð! `Grandpa! etc. do not change. Note: The nasalized (-¡ð÷ü) forms should never be used for vocative plural, as is sometimes done by careless writers. | й | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
CHAPTER XVI | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
``A Pronoun is a word used instead of a Noun``. It functions as a Noun, except that it cannot be used as the name of a person or a thing. It is ``used instead of a Noun that is used elsewhere or is suggested by the context. Thus it permits us to avoid the unpleasant repetition of a Noun or the unnecessary naming of a person (or thing) that is already known``. (Curme). A Hindi Pronoun is, like a Noun, affected by Number and case, but not by Gender (which is indicated by the verbal forms, or by the Adjectives). In Hindi, there are six classes of Pronouns: (1) Personal, (2) Demonstrativ, (3) Reflexive, (4) Relative, Personal Pronouns are used for `the person speaking`, the person spoken to` and `the person or thing spoken about`. There are thus three Persons: Pronouns indicating the person speaking are said to be of the First Person. These are Ùðøü `I` (singular) and èÙð `we` (plural). (èÙð is oftern used for Ùðøü by authors and editors and colloquially). Pronouns indicating the person spoken to are said to be of the Second Person. These are Ãðõ `thou` (singular), ÃðôÙð `you` (plural) and ¡ðÑð `you` (honorific: always takes third person plural verbs). Ãðõ is used in addressing God, children and, occasionally, very intimate friends. It may also be used in anger or to express disrespect or in fondly addressing one`s mother, sister, younger brother etc. (but seldom father, uncle and grandfather). ÃðôÙð is used in addressing God, children and, occasionally, very intimate friends. It may also be used in a nger or to express disrespect or in fondly addressing one`s mother, sister, younger brother etc. (but seldom father, uncle and grandfather). ¡ðÑð is the polite and respectful form of address for all, both in the singular and the plural. (it is occasionally used also for a person `spoken about`.) See font face=«AkrutiOffdevDynamic» size=«5»>The singular forms ãðè and Úðè are not used for a person unless he (or she) can also be addressed as Ãðõ when spoken to. ãð÷ and Úð÷ are the usual forms in both singular and plural. For things, however, the ``correct`` number is used. In polite speech, ¡ðÑð is almost invariably used instead of Úð÷ when the person spoken about is present (as``the gentleman here``)..Pronouns referring to the person or thing spoken about (other than the person speaking and the person spoken to) are said to be of the Third Person. These are ãðè and Úðè `he, she, it` (singular), and ãð÷ and Úð÷ `they and these` (plural). (i) ãðè, Úðè, ãð÷ and Úð÷ are really Demonstrative Pronouns, used also as Personal. See:- Demonstrative Pronouns are used for `pointing out` a relatively remote or proximate person or thing. The Demonstrative Pronouns are:- ãðè, Úðè, ãð÷ and Úð÷ are Personal or Demonstrative, can be ascertained from only the situation or the context. When there is definite `pointing out`, they are Demonstrative. When there is more substitution of Nouns, they are Personal. In talk, Demonstrative pronouns are often accompanied with gesture `i.e.` `pointing out`. ãðè and ãð÷ refer to the absent or relatively remote person (s) and thing (s); (``he, she, it-three,»«; Úðè and Úð÷ refer to the present or relatively proximate person (s) and thing (s)- (``he, she, it-here``, ``these-here)»«. The singular forms ãðè and Úðè are not used for a person unless he (or she) can also be addressed as Ãðõ when spoken to. ãð÷ and Úð÷ are the usual forms in both singular and plural. For things, however, the ``correct`` number is used. In polite speech, ¡ðÑð is almost invariably used instead of Úð÷ when the person spoken about is present (as``the gentleman here``). In writing, ¡ðÑð is sometimes used (as ``the gentleman``) for an author, scholar, leader etc. introduced or described to the readers. The usage, however, is somewhat archaic. Use of Úðè and ãðè Plural forms, though common, should be carefully avoided. All the Pronouns (of whatever class) except Ùðøü, èÙð Ãðõ and ÃðôÙð and the Reflexive (109) are considered to be of the Third Person. See:- Thus, the present Indicative forms of the root µðâð are as follows:-with a Masculine subject:- singular plural First Person Ùðøü µðâðÃðð èõü `I move`, èÙð µðâðÃð÷ èø `we move`. With a Feminine subject:- singular Plural 1st person Ùðøü µðâðÃðó èõû èÙð µðâðÃðó èøü Note (ii). Generally, ãðè and Úðè are pronounced as ãðð÷ and Úð÷. Demonstrative Pronouns are used for `pointing out` a relatively remote or proximate person or thing. The Demonstrative Pronouns are:- ãðè, Úðè, ãð÷ and Úð÷ are Personal or Demonstrative, can be ascertained from only the situation or the context. When there is definite `pointing out`, they are Demonstrative. When there is more substitution of Nouns, they are Personal. In talk, Demonstrative pronouns are often accompanied with gesture `i.e.` `pointing out`. Reflexive Pronouns substitue and refer to a Noun or Pronoun which is, as a rule, the logical subject of the sentence. Hindi has only three Reflexive Pronouns: ¡ðÑð, its oblique forms ¡ÑðÐðð and ¡ÑðÐð÷, and a compound of these two, ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð; ¡ðÑðçð Ùð÷ðòÐðÐð±ð `each other` or `one another` (119-21). The latter is also, in its origin, a Reflexive Pronoun. Of these, ¡ðÑð (occasionally followed by èó) [294 (a)] has an adjectival (intensifying) force and qualifies a Noun or Pronoun which it usually follows, and which, as a rule, is the logical subject of the sentence. ÜðÙð ¡ðÑð (èó) ãðèðü ±ðÚðð Æðð `Ram himself had gone there`; Ùðô»ð÷ ¡ðÑð èó ¸ððÐðð ÑðÀÿ÷±ðð `I shall have to go myself`; ãð÷ ¡ðÑð (èó) ¡ð¦ü±ð÷ `they themselves will come`; ÜðÙð ¡ðÑð Øðõ®ðð èø `Ram is himself hungry`; £çðÐð÷ ¡ðÑð èó Úðè Ñðëð òâð®ðð èø `he himself has written this letter`. (i) ¡ðÑð is frequently replaced by çãðÚðü (Sanskrit) or by ®ðôÇ (Persian): ÜðÙð çãðÚðü (èó) ãðèðü ±ðÚðð Æðð, ãðè çãðÚðü ¡ð¦±ðð, ÜðÙð ®ðôÇ Øðõ®ðð èø| ¡ðÑð (èó) occasionally qualufies Nouns or Pronouns which are not the logical subjects of the sentences: £çð¨îð ¡ðÑð òÇãððâð òÐð¨îâð ±ðÚðð èø `he has himself become a bankrupt`; Ðð÷Ãðð Ùð÷ü ¡ðÑð (èó) òèÙÙðÃð Ððèóü èø `the leader himself has no courage.` The current tendency, however, is to replace ¡ðÑð in all such cases by çãðÚðü or ®ðôÇ òÇãððâðð òÐð¨îâð ±ðÚðð èø, Ðð÷Ãðð Ùð÷ü çãðÚðü (èó) òèÙÙðÃð Ððèóü èø| Note also that ¡ðÑð, used as an Adjective, does not attach case-signs. (See:- The Reflexive ¡ðÑð as already stated [109 (b).] change to ¡ÑðÐð÷ before ¨îð÷, çð÷, Ùð÷ü and ÑðÜ: ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¨îð÷, ¡ÑðÐð÷ Ùð÷ü etc. Ðð÷ is not attached to the reflexive ¡ðÑð, but only the subject (Noun or Pronoun) to which ¡ðÑð refers. In such cases, ¡ðÑð itself remains unchanged. ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ¡ðÑð (èó) Úðè ¨îðÙð ò¨îÚðð Ram himself did this work` For denoting the various senses of ¨îð, ¡ðÑð changes to ¡ÑðÐðð, ¡ÑðÐðó, ¡ÑðÐð÷ [109 (d)] The Plural forms are the same as those of the Singular. ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð remains unchanged. ¡ðÑð èó can, however, be used also as an Adverb, when it means `of one`s own accord, spontaneously`. Thus, ÜðÙð ¡ðÑð èó ãðèðü ±ðÚðð can denote, if the context so demands, `Ram had gone there of his own accord`. cf. the adverbial use of ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð, under (c) below. The Reflexive ¡ðÑð is, of course, to be differentiated from the personal ¡ðÑð which is nothing but a polite form of ÃðôÙð (or Úð÷ or ãð÷), while the Reflexive ¡ðÑð can refer to any `person`. The oblique form of ¡ðÑð is ¡ÑðÐð÷ meaning, oneself, with ¨îð÷, çð÷, Ùð÷ü or pr as required (but never with Ðð÷). See:- The Reflexive ¡ðÑð as already stated [109 (b).] change to ¡ÑðÐð÷ before ¨îð÷, çð÷, Ùð÷ü and ÑðÜ: ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¨îð÷, ¡ÑðÐð÷ Ùð÷ü etc. Ðð÷ is not attached to the reflexive ¡ðÑð, but only the subject (Noun or Pronoun) to which ¡ðÑð refers. In such cases, ¡ðÑð itself remains unchanged. ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ¡ðÑð (èó) Úðè ¨îðÙð ò¨îÚðð Ram himself did this work` For denoting the various senses of ¨îð, ¡ðÑð changes to ¡ÑðÐðð, ¡ÑðÐðó, ¡ÑðÐð÷ [109 (d)] The Plural forms are the same as those of the Singular. ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð remains unchanged. ¡ÑðÐð÷ refers to a Noun or a Pronoun which must be the logical subject of the sentence: ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¨îð÷ ãðÐð Ùð÷ü ÑððÚðð `Ram found himself in the forest`; ¡ÑðÐð÷ Ùð÷ü ò¨îçðó ¨îð÷ Çð÷æð Ððèóü Çó®ðÃðð `nobody sees a fault in himself.` ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð is used either as an emphatic (or unambiguous) form for the oblique ¡ÑðÐð÷ (see note below), or as an adverb maning `of one`s own accord, automatically, spontaneously`. Thus:- çðóÃðð Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ (¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð) ¨îð÷ Çð÷æð òÇÚðð `Sita blamed herself (her own self)» ÙðøüÐð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ (¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð) çð÷ Ñðõ¶ð `I asked myself (my own self)». But in ãðè ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð µðâðð ±ðÚðð `he went away of his own accord`, ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð is adverbial, and can be replaced by ¡ðÑð èó: ãðè ¡ðÑð èó µðâðð ±ðÚðð. see:- ¡ðÑð èó can, however, be used also as an Adverb, when it means `of one`s own accord, spontaneously`. Thus, ÜðÙð ¡ðÑð èó ãðèðü ±ðÚðð can denote, if the context so demands, `Ram had gone there of his own accord`. cf. the adverbial use of ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð, under (c) below. (d) ¡ÑðÐðð `belonging to oneself`, `one`s own`, is, in fact, an Adjective derived from ¡ðÑð, and is used (like the ¨îð forms: 101 Note) as such (with its modifications ¡ÑðÐðó and ¡ÑðÐð÷) provided the person it refers to is the logical subject of the sentence. âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ÑðÐðó ò¨îÃðð×ð Ùððü±ðÃðð èø `the boy asks for his book`; âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐðó Ùððü çð÷ ¨îèð `the boy told his mother,» Note: ¡ÑðÐð÷ and ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð (except when adverbial) are used only in the oblique cases with ¨îð÷, çð÷, Ùð÷ü, and pr (but never with Ðð÷). In ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð, ¡ðÑð is really a Nown meaning `self` so that ¡ÑðÐð-¡ðÑð = one`s self. ¡ÑðÐð÷ is the shorter form of ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð, with the Noun ¡ðÑð omitted, but implied, so that ¡ÑðÐð÷ = ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð =one`s self = oneself. 110. A relative Pronoun is related to a Noun or a Pronoun occurring in the main sentence, the Relative itself occurring in a subordinate sentence and joining the two. Hinid has only one Relative Pronoun, ¸ðð÷ `who, which, that, what.` ãðè Ñð÷üòçðâð òÙðâð ±ðýá ¸ðð÷ ®ðð÷ ±ðýá Æðó `the pencil,which had been lost, has been found.` The main sentence isãðè Ñð÷üòçðâð òÙðâð ±ðýá `the pencil has been found`; the subordinate sentence is `¸ðð÷ ®ðð÷ ±ðýá Æðó` `which had been lost, has been found.` The main sentence is ãðè Ñð÷üòçðâð òÙðâð ±ðýá `the pencil has been found`; the subordinate sentence is `¸ðð÷ ®ðð÷ ±ðýá Æðó` `which had been lost`. ¸ðð÷ `which had been lost`. ¸ðð÷ which occurs in the latter is related to Ñð÷üòçðâð occurring in the main sentence, and joins the two sentences like a conjunction. See:-Conjunctions are words which join together or connect words, sentences, or Parts of a sentence (67): Mother and child came. (2) Is it good or bad? (3) I came, but you had gone. (4) you said that you would come. (5) The servant will wait until you come. It is, however, not often that a conjunction connects two words, sentences, `mother came` and `child came` which have been contracted into one for the sake of economy. Similarly, `is it good or bad` is contracted from `isit good` and `is it bad`. Only in sentences like, `put two and two together`, or `Sita and Kamla are cousin` can a conjuntion be said to connect two words. In the third example, `I came but you had gone`, the two smaller sentences are independent of each other. In the fourth sentence, however, `you would come` is subordinate to `you said`, since it functions as the object of `said`. In the last sentence, `until you come` is subordinate sentences so the main sentences to the main sentence are called Subordinating. `and`, `or`, and `but` in the above examples are Co-ordinating; `that` and `until` are subordinating.). Similarly, ¸ðð÷ ¡ðÚðð Æðð, ãðè µðâðð ±ðÚðð `he, who had come, is gone`. Here ãðè µðâðð ±ðÚðð is the main sentence and ¸ðð÷ ¡ðÚðð Æðð is the subordinate one. ¸ðð÷ joins the two, at the same time being related to ãðè. ¸ðð÷ is both Singular and Plural. ¸ðð÷ is always accompanied with ãðè or ãð÷ in the main sentence. Both ¸ðð÷ and ãðè (ãð÷) refer to one and the same person or thing. ãðè (ãð÷) is called the `Correlative` of ¸ðð÷. çðð÷ (`he, they), as a Correlative of ¸ðð÷ is now obsolete except in proverbs and maxims. Indefinite Pronouns refer to an unknown or unidentified person or thing. Hindi has only two Indefinite Pronouns ¨îð÷ýá and ¨ôî¶; ¨îð÷ýá `someone, somebody` refers to a person and ¨ôî¶ `somethings` to a thing. ¨îð÷ýá ¡ð Üèð èø `Somebody is coming; £çð¨îð ¨ôî¶ ®ðð÷ ±ðÚðð èø `he has lost something`; ÇõÏð Ùð÷ü ¨ôî¶ ÑðÀÿ ±ðÚðð èø `something has fallen into the milk`; ¡ð¸ð ¨îð÷ýá Ððèóü ¡ðÚðð `nobody came to-day.` ³ðÜ Ùð÷ü ¨ôî¶ Ððèóü èø `there is nothing in the house.` (i) ¨ôî¶ along with ©Úðð (114), is really a neuter form-a rare occurrence in Hindi. (ii) ¨ôî¶ is also used as an adjective (numeral and quantitative) and as an Adverb meaning `some`, `a few`, `a little`, `partly`. (iii) ¨îð÷ýá may be used as an Adverb, in the sense of `some, about`. ¨îð÷ýá may also be used as the plural form and signify `some people` ¨îð÷ýá ¡ð Üè÷ èøü `some people are coming`. Interrogative Pronouns are used in asking questions. Hind has only two Interrogative Pronouns- ¨îð÷ýá and ©Úðð, the former usually referring tp `person` and the latter to `things` either in singular or in plural: ãðè ¨îðøÐð èø? `who is he?`; ©Úðð is really a neuter form — a rare oceeurremce in Hindi. ©Úðð (frequently expressed but occasionally implied) is used for denoting the interrogative nature of a sentence (except when another interrogativ word is present (192 Note): ©Úðð ãðè ¡ðÚðð èø? `has he come?`; For further uses of ©Úðð (as a Compound Pronoun),©Úðð-©Úðð `which things?`, `what things?`: ©Úðð is also used as Adverb expressing emphatic negation: | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Hindi Pronouns attach the same case-signs as the Nouns, namely, Ðð÷, ¨îð÷, çð÷, Ùð÷ü, ÑðÜ and ¨îð. But the oblique itself, in some cases, is formed differently from the Noun. The oblique forms of the various Pronouns are made as follows: In the singular, Úðè, ãðè, ¸ðð÷ and çðð÷ change respectively to ýçð, £çð, ò¸ðçð and òÃðçð while ¨îðøÐð and ©Úðð change to ò¨îçð and ¨îð÷ýá and ¨ôî¶ to ò¨îçðó before all the case-signs: ýçð¨îð÷, £çðÙð÷ü, ò¸ðçðÐð÷, ò¨îçð ÑðÜ, ò¨îçðó çð÷. In the Plural, except before Ðð÷, these change to ýÐð, £Ðð, ò¸ðÐð, òÃðÐð, ò¨îÐð and ò¨îÐèóü:ýÐð¨îð, £Ððçð÷, ò¸ðÐðÙð÷ü, ò¨îÐèóü ¨îð÷. Before Ðð÷, the Plural oblique forms are ýÐèð÷ü, £Ðèð÷ü, ò¸ðÐèð÷ü, ò¨îÐèð÷ü and ò¨îÐèóü: ýÐèð÷üÐð÷, £Ðèð÷üÐð÷, ò¨îÐèð÷üÐð÷, ò¨îÐèóüÐð÷. Ùðøü and Ãðõ remain unchanged before Ðð÷: ÙðøüÐð÷, ÃðõÐð÷. Followed by the rest of the case-signs, Ùðøü and Ãðõ change to Ùðô»ð and Ãðô»ð: Ùðô»ð¨îð÷, Ãðô»ðçð÷. èÙð and ÃðôÙð remain unchanged before all case-signs: èÙðÐð÷,èÙðçð÷, èÙð¨îð÷, ÃðôÙð¨îð÷, ÃðôÙðÙð÷ü. Ùðøü, Ãðõ èÙð and ÃðôÙð do not attach ¨îð. Instead, they change into Ùð÷Üð, Ãð÷Üð, èÙððÜð and ÃðôÙèðÜð. These latter forms have all the significations of ¨îð and modify to Ùð÷Üó, Ãð÷Üó, èÙððÜó, ÃðôÙèðÜó and Ùð÷Ü, Ãð÷Ü÷, èÙððÜ÷, ÃðôÙèðÜ÷. When used as an Adjective (ii) ¨ôî¶ is also used as an adjective (numeral and quantitative) and as an Adverb meaning `some`, `a few`, `a little`, `partly`. ¨ôî¶ remains unchanged See ¡ÑðÐð÷ refers to a Noun or a Pronoun which must be the logical subject of the sentence: ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¨îð÷ ãðÐð Ùð÷ü ÑððÚðð `Ram found himself in the forest`; ¡ÑðÐð÷ Ùð÷ü ò¨îçðó ¨îð÷ Çð÷æð Ððèóü Çó®ðÃðð `nobody sees a fault in himself.` Adjectives denoting quality, number and quantity may be used as Nouns, when they are affected by Case and Number in the same way as Nouns ×ðÀÿð÷ü Ðð÷, ¶ð÷¾ð÷ü çð÷, ýÃðÐð÷ çð÷, ¦¨î Ðð÷, µððÜ Ðð÷, ×ðèôÃðð÷ü ¨îð÷, ¶ð÷ò¾Úðð÷ü ¨îð÷, ×ðôÜó çð÷; ¡ÑðÐðð used as a Noun denotes `a thing`, or person belonging to oneself, ¨ôî¶., however, does not change: ¨ôî¶ Ùð÷ü (Plural)… An an alternative to ¨îð÷, all the oblique forms attach ¦ in Singular and è÷ü in Plural: ýçð÷ (= ýçð¨îð÷), ýÐè÷ü (= ýÐð¨îð÷), £çð÷, £Ðè÷ü, Ãðô»ð÷, ÃðôÙè÷ü, èÙð, however, makes èÙð÷ü and not èÙè÷ü (See:- Ùðô»ð÷, Ùðô»ð¨îð÷ (114) With pronouns, the ¨îð÷ forms and ¨îð÷, a pronominal case-sign would have been completely discarded but for its utility in the adjectival use of Pronouns. In such phrases as Ùðô»ð ÇóÐð ¨îð÷ Ðð çðÃððý¦, £Ðð âðð÷±ðð÷ü ¨îð÷ Úðèðû ×ðôâðð¡ð÷. (127), -¦ or -è÷ü forms cannot be used. Note: The indefinite Pronouns ¨îð÷ýá and ¨ôî¶ do not attach ¦ or è÷ü. The Personal Pronoun ¡ðÑð attaches all case-signs without any change ¡ðÑðÐð÷, ¡ðÑð¨îð÷, ¡ðÑðÙð÷ü. Note: The Personal Pronoun ¡ðÑð is always Plural (honorific). The Reflexive ¡ðÑð as already stated See:- ¡ÑðÐð÷ refers to a Noun or a Pronoun which must be the logical subject of the sentence: ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¨îð÷ ãðÐð Ùð÷ü ÑððÚðð `Ram found himself in the forest`; ¡ÑðÐð÷ Ùð÷ü ò¨îçðó ¨îð÷ Çð÷æð Ððèóü Çó®ðÃðð `nobody sees a fault in himself.` change to ¡ÑðÐð÷ before ¨îð÷, çð÷, Ùð÷ü and ÑðÜ: ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¨îð÷, ¡ÑðÐð÷ Ùð÷ü etc. Ðð÷ is not attached to the reflexive ¡ðÑð, but only the subject (Noun or Pronoun) to which ¡ðÑð refers. In such cases, ¡ðÑð itself remains unchanged. ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ¡ðÑð (èó) Úðè ¨îðÙð ò¨îÚðð Ram himself did this work` For denoting the various senses of ¨îð, ¡ðÑð changes to ¡ÑðÐðð, ¡ÑðÐðó, ¡ÑðÐð÷ [See :- (d) ¡ÑðÐðð `belonging to oneself`, `one`s own`, is, in fact, an Adjective derived from ¡ðÑð, and is used (like the ¨îð forms: 101 Note) as such (with its modifications ¡ÑðÐðó and ¡ÑðÐð÷) provided the person it refers to is the logical subject of the sentence. âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ÑðÐðó ò¨îÃðð×ð Ùððü±ðÃðð èø `the boy asks for his book`; âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐðó Ùððü çð÷ ¨îèð `the boy told his mother,» The Plural forms are the same as those of the Singular. ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð remains unchanged. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Compound Pronouns: Two or more Pronouns may be compounded, or the same Pronoun repeated to denote various shades of meanings. The following are some of the more important combinations:- ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð See:- ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð is used either as an emphatic (or unambiguous) form for the oblique ¡ÑðÐð÷ (see note below), or as an adverb maning `of one`s own accord, automatically, spontaneously`. Thus:- çðóÃðð Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ (¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð) ¨îð÷ Çð÷æð òÇÚðð `Sita blamed herself (her own self)» ÙðøüÐð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ (¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð) çð÷ Ñðõ¶ð `I asked myself (my own self)». But in ãðè ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð µðâðð ±ðÚðð `he went away of his own accord`, ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð is adverbial, and can be replaced by ¡ðÑð èó: ãðè ¡ðÑð èó µðâðð ±ðÚðð. and See ¡ÑðÐð÷-¡ðÑð (109-c) may be used as an Adverb of manner and denotes `of one`s own accord, spontaneously`: ³ðÜ Ùð÷ü ¨îð÷ýá-Ðð-¨îð÷ýá ¡ãðäÚð èð÷±ðð `someone or the other must be in the house.` (11) ¨îð÷ýá.....¨îð÷ýá `some.....others`, or `one......another`; ¨îð÷ýá ¡ð Üè÷ èøü, ¨îð÷ýá ¸ðð Üè÷ èøü `some are coming, others are going`; ¨ôî¶ Ðð ¨ôî¶ (App. III 5 (j) `someone or the other`: (13) ¨ôî¶ ¨îð ¨ôî¶ `something quite different from what was intended or expected`: (14) çð×ð -¨ôî¶ `everybody gets up in the morning`. (15) ×ðèôÃð ¨ôî¶ `a great deal` [also used as an Adverb. (c)]: ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ×ðèôÃð-¨ôî¶ ÙððâðõÙð èø `Ram knows a great deal`. (16) ¨ôî¶ ¨ôî¶ `somewhat`, `a little` [Adj. or Adv. ¨îð÷ýá ¡ðøÜ `someone else, anybody else`: Most of these compounds, however, are affected by Sandhi [50 (c) and 9 (d)] and are slightly modifed: Ùðô»ð + èó = Ùðô»ðó, Ãðô»ð + èó = Ãðô»ðó, èÙð + èó = (èÙðó), ÃðôÙð+èó=ÃðôÙèó (ÃðôÙèóü), ãðè + èó = ãðèó, Úðè + èó = Úðèó, Note that:- ò¨îçðó and ò¨îÐèó serve as Singular and Plural obliques of ¨îð÷ýá. The nasalized forms èÙðóü, ÃðôÙèóü etc. are used only in pronounciation. They are written without the dot. Miscellaneous Pronouns: ¡Ùðô¨î `so and so`: (2) ×ðèôÃð `several, a lot, a good many`: ÃðôÙð-¸ðøçð÷ ÙðøüÐð÷ ×ðèôÃð Ç÷®ð÷ èøü `I have seen a lot like you!` ¡ðÑðçð (Ùð÷ü or ¨îó) `each other, one another, among themselves`. ¡ðÑðçð Ùð÷ü ÙðÃð âðÀÿð÷ `do not quarrel with each other.` (4) ÑðÜçÑðÜ `mutually (adverb)». (5) ¦¨î-ÇõçðÜ÷ `each other, one another`: ¦¨î....ÇõçðÜð ( or ÇõçðÜ÷) `one....the other` or `some....others`. They have conjunctive force: (7) Òîâððü, ÒîâððÐðð `so and so`: The ¨îð or Üð forms of Pronouns, when referring to the subject of the senternce, are always replaced by the reflexive ¡ÑðÐðð. See:- (d) ¡ÑðÐðð `belonging to oneself`, `one`s own`, is, in fact, an Adjective derived from ¡ðÑð, and is used (like the ¨îð forms: 101 Note) as such (with its modifications ¡ÑðÐðó and ¡ÑðÐð÷) provided the person it refers to is the logical subject of the sentence. âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ÑðÐðó ò¨îÃðð×ð Ùððü±ðÃðð èø `the boy asks for his book`; âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐðó Ùððü çð÷ ¨îèð `the boy told his mother,» ÜðÙð ¡ÑðÐðð (not £çð¨îð) Ñðð¿ ÑðÁÿÃðð èø `Ram reads his lesson`. Note the difference- Ùðøü £çðçð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ³ðÜ ÑðÜ òÙðâðð `I met him at my house`. (Subject Ùðøü) (For further discussion, see:- ¡ÑðÐðð (reflexive, like Ãð÷Üð, Ùð÷Üð, ÃðôÙèðÜð, £çð¨îð etc.) is an Adjective. It replaces the latter in every case where they refer to the logical subject of the sentence (``the doer``), whether it (the subject) is in the Direct Case, or in the Oblique Case with Ðð÷, or çð÷ (in Passive Voice), or with ¨îð÷ (266-70). In the direct case and oblique with Ðð÷, the logical subject is identical with the grammatical: Ùðøü ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ¨îÜÃðð èõü, ÙðøüÐð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ò¨îÚðð: A logical subject in the oblique with ¨îð÷ or çð÷ is not the grammatical subject-that position is occupied by the logical object: Ùðô»ð¨îð÷ (Ùðô»ð÷) ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ¡µ¶ð âð±ðÃðð èø, Ùðô»ðçð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð Ððèóü èð÷Ãðð. In all the four sentences, ¡ÑðÐðð has replaced Ùð÷Üð because Ùðøü (the person referred to by Ùð÷Üð) is the logical subject in all the four. But in a sentence like Ùðô»ðçð÷ Ùð÷Ü÷ Øððýá Ðð÷ ¨îèð, Ùð÷Ü÷ cannot be replaced by ¡ÑðÐð÷ because Øððýá is the subject here and not Ùðøü. See:- ¡ÑðÐðð is sometimes used for denoting ÃðôÙèðÜð (or Ãð÷Üð)=+èÙððÜð (or Ùð÷Üð) in such sentences as:- Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð ¡ÑðÐðð èó èø `this house is ours (yours and mine)», where the person spoken to is included in ¡ÑðÐðð either, as a matter of fact,or out of friendliness or humility on the part of the speaker (the house actually belonging to the speaker alone). A further extension of the ``friendliness or humility`` is achieved by saying Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð ¡ðÑð¨îð èó èø for Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð Ùð÷Üð èø.). However, ¡ÑðÐðð is used as an intensifying Adjective (=own) qualifying the ¨îð or Üð forms which it invariably follows: ÜðÙð ¨îð ¡ÑðÐðð ³ðÜ Ram`s own house,» Ùð÷Üó ¡ÑðÐðó ò¨îÃðð×ð `my own book`, ÃðôÙèðÜ÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¨îÑðÀÿ÷ `your own clothes` etc. As in the case of certain Nouns (see:- The word âðð÷±ð meaning `people`, is sometimes appended to such Masculine Nouns as do not modify in Plural. The signification is that of plurality. but usually, `as a class`: Üð¸ðð âðð÷±ð `kings` (as a class), ¡ðÚðá âðð÷±ð `the Aryans` (as a class), çððÏðô âðð÷±ð `saints, mendicants` (as a class) The compound (Üð¸ðð âðð÷±ð etc.) thus formed is treated as a single word, the element (Üð¸ðð, çððÏðô, etc.) remaining unchanged, and only âðð÷±ð taking case-forms, etc.), the word âðð÷±ð is attached to a plural Pronoun for defining emphasizing plurality: ¡ðÑð âðð÷±ð, èÙð âðð÷±ð, ÃðôÙð âðð÷±ð, Úð÷ âðð÷±ð, ãð÷ âðð÷±ð, ¸ðð÷ âðð÷±ð, ¨îðøÐð âðð÷±ð etc. In oblique forms, ¡ðÑð, ÃðôÙð and èÙð are not affected while Úð÷, ãð÷ etc. change to ýÐð, £Ðð ÷etc. The case signs are attached to âðð÷±ð only which change to âðð÷±ðð÷ü, ¡ðÑð âðð÷±ðð÷ü Ðð÷, èÙð âðð÷±ðð÷ü çð÷, £Ðð âðð÷±ðð÷ü ¨îð÷ etc. The word çð×ð is similarly used for denoting plurality: èÙð çð×ð, ãð÷ çð×ð, £Ðð çð×ðð÷ü Ðð÷, èÙð çð×ðð÷ü ¨îð÷, ÃðôÙð çð×ðð÷ü Ùð÷ü etc. The case-signs Ðð÷ ¨îð÷ etc. are tagged on to the Pronouns, (95-Note) but not ÑðÜ (£çð ÑðÜ, ÃðôÙð ÑðÜ). | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
CHAPTER XIX | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
An Adjective is a word which qualifies a Noun, a Pronoun or an Adjective: ¡µ¶ð âðÀÿ¨îð `a good boy` ×ðôÜð ¡ðÇÙðó `a bad man` Some Adjectives denote a quality (¡µ¶ð, ×ðôÜð, ¨îðâðó); some state number (Ñððûµð), quantity (×ðèôÃð); some describe state or condition (¿üÀð, ×ðóÙððÜ); some only point out (Úðè, ãðè); others particularize or show relation (Ùð÷Üó, èÙððÜð); still others ask question (¨îðøÐð-çðó) etc., etc. Broadly speaking, Adjectives can be divided into two classes describing and distinguishing, i.e. those which merely indicate a quality, and those which point out a person or a thing as distinct from others of their own class. Thus ×ðôÜð, ¨îðâðó, ×ðóÙððÜ, ¿üÀð etc. merely describe, whereas Úðè, ãðè, Ùð÷Üó, èÙððÜð etc. point to thing and persons which are to be distinguished from other persons and things. Almost all the Pronouns can function as Adjectives: Úðè ò¨îÃðð×ð `this book` The oblique forms of Pronouns having ¨îð, Üð or Ððð namely, ýçð¨îð, £çð¨îð, ò¨îçð¨îð, Ùð÷Üð, Ãð÷Üð, èÙððÜð, ÃðôÙèðÜð and ¡ÑðÐðð (except in ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¡ðÑð) etc. are used always as Adjectives. In fact, the oblique forms of all Nouns with ¨îð may also be considered as Possessive Adjective changes to-ýá and-¦. Note- ¡ÑðÐðð is used also as an intensifying (or emphasizing) Adjective when it follows a Noun or Pronoun with ¨îð or Üð and means `own`. see:- The ¨îð or Üð forms of Pronouns, when referring to the subject of the senternce, are always replaced by the reflexive ¡ÑðÐðð. See:- (d) ¡ÑðÐðð `belonging to oneself`, `one`s own`, is, in fact, an Adjective derived from ¡ðÑð, and is used (like the ¨îð forms: 101 Note) as such (with its modifications ¡ÑðÐðó and ¡ÑðÐð÷) provided the person it refers to is the logical subject of the sentence. âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ÑðÐðó ò¨îÃðð×ð Ùððü±ðÃðð èø `the boy asks for his book`; âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ ¡ÑðÐðó Ùððü çð÷ ¨îèð `the boy told his mother,» ÜðÙð ¡ÑðÐðð (not £çð¨îð) Ñðð¿ ÑðÁÿÃðð èø `Ram reads his lesson`. Note the difference- Ùðøü £çðçð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ³ðÜ ÑðÜ òÙðâðð `I met him at my house`. (Subject Ùðøü) (For further discussion, see ¡ÑðÐðð (reflexive, like Ãð÷Üð, Ùð÷Üð, ÃðôÙèðÜð, £çð¨îð etc.) is an Adjective. It replaces the latter in every case where they refer to the logical subject of the sentence (``the doer``), whether it (the subject) is in the Direct Case, or in the Oblique Case with Ðð÷, or çð÷ (in Passive Voice), or with ¨îð÷ (266-70). In the direct case and oblique with Ðð÷, the logical subject is identical with the grammatical: Ùðøü ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ¨îÜÃðð èõü, ÙðøüÐð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ò¨îÚðð: A logical subject in the oblique with ¨îð÷ or çð÷ is not the grammatical subject-that position is occupied by the logical object: Ùðô»ð¨îð÷ (Ùðô»ð÷) ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ¡µ¶ð âð±ðÃðð èø, Ùðô»ðçð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð Ððèóü èð÷Ãðð. In all the four sentences, ¡ÑðÐðð has replaced Ùð÷Üð because Ùðøü (the person referred to by Ùð÷Üð) is the logical subject in all the four. But in a sentence like Ùðô»ðçð÷ Ùð÷Ü÷ Øððýá Ðð÷ ¨îèð, Ùð÷Ü÷ cannot be replaced by ¡ÑðÐð÷ because Øððýá is the subject here and not Ùðøü. See ¡ÑðÐðð is sometimes used for denoting ÃðôÙèðÜð (or Ãð÷Üð)=+èÙððÜð (or Ùð÷Üð) in such sentences as:- Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð ¡ÑðÐðð èó èø `this house is ours (yours and mine)», where the person spoken to is included in ¡ÑðÐðð either, as a matter of fact,or out of friendliness or humility on the part of the speaker (the house actually belonging to the speaker alone). A further extension of the ``friendliness or humility`` is achieved by saying Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð ¡ðÑð¨îð èó èø for Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð Ùð÷Üð èø.). However, ¡ÑðÐðð is used as an intensifying Adjective (=own) qualifying the ¨îð or Üð forms which it invariably follows: ÜðÙð ¨îð ¡ÑðÐðð ³ðÜ Ram`s own house,» Ùð÷Üó ¡ÑðÐðó ò¨îÃðð×ð `my own book`, ÃðôÙèðÜ÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ¨îÑðÀÿ÷ `your own clothes` etc. (a) Adjectives ending in ¡ð (including Possessive Adjectives change to ýá when qualifiying a Feminine Nown in any case or number: ¡µ¶ð âðÀÿ¨îð `a good boy`, but ¡µ¶ó âðÀÿ¨îó `a good girl`; ¡µ¶ó âðÀÿò¨îÚððü, ¡µ¶ÿó âðÀÿ¨îó ¨îð÷, ¡µ¶ó âðÀÿò¨îÚðð÷ü ¨îð÷, similarly Ùð÷Üó ò¨îÃðð×ð, Ùð÷Üó ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü, Ùð÷Üó ò¨îÃðð×ð Ùð÷ü, Ùð÷Üó ò¨îÃðð×ðð÷ü Ùð÷ü etc. The ¡ð changes to ¦ when the Adjective is qualifying a Masculine Noun either in the oblique form or in the Plural (Direct Oblique): ¡µ¶÷ÿ âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷, ¡µ¶÷ âðÀÿ¨÷î `good boys`, ¡µ¶÷ âðÀÿ¨îð÷ü ¨îð÷, Ùð÷Ü÷ Øððýá ¨îð÷, Ùð÷Ü÷ Øððýáû ` my brothers`, Ùð÷Ü÷ ØððýüÚðð÷ü ¨îð÷ etc. A few A¡ð — Adjectives are excepted from this rule: çðãðð `one and a quarter`, ×ðòÁÿÚðð`of superior quality`, ³ðò¾Úðð `of inferior quality`, £ÙðÇð `nice`, Çôò®ðÚðð `unhappy, unfortunate`. All the other Adjectives (âððâð `red`, ØððÜó `heavy` etc.) remain unchanged: âððâð ¨îÑðÀÿð (masc.) `red cloth`, âððâð ¨îÑðÀÿ÷, `red cloths`, âððâð çððÀÿó `red sari`. Case-signs are attached only to the Nouns, the Adjective having only the oblique form: ¡µ¶÷ âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷, Ùð÷Ü÷ Øððýá çð÷, èÙððÜ÷ äðèÜ Ùð÷ü, £çð ¡ðÇÙðó çð÷, Ùðô©Ãð ÇóÐð ÑðÜ, èÙð ±ðÜó×ðð÷ü ¨îð÷ but See:- Adjectives denoting quality, number and quantity may be used as Nouns, when they are affected by Case and Number in the same way as Nouns ×ðÀÿð÷ü Ðð÷, ¶ð÷¾ð÷ü çð÷, ýÃðÐð÷ çð÷, ¦¨î Ðð÷, µððÜ Ðð÷, ×ðèôÃðð÷ü ¨îð÷, ¶ð÷ò¾Úðð÷ü ¨îð÷, ×ðôÜó çð÷; ¡ÑðÐðð used as a Noun denotes `a thing`, or person belonging to oneself, ¨ôî¶., however, does not change: ¨ôî¶ Ùð÷ü (Plural). (a) attached to the oblique form of a Noun or a Pronoun denotes `like`, which then functions as an Adjective: ±ððÚð-çðð cow-like`, ¨ôîÄð÷-çðð `dog-like`, Ùðô»ð-çðð `me-like`, ÃðôÙð-çðð `you-like`, £Ðð-çðð `them-like`. The çðð of these Adjectives changes in the oblique and the Feminine like ordinary ¡ð-Adjectives. (b) çðð is attached also to an Adjective and either denotes `looking, seeming`: âððâð-çðð `red-looking`, ¤ûµðð-çðð or (ii) çðð intensifies when used with quantitative Adjectives: ×ðèôÃð-çðð `a great deal`, Æðð÷Àÿð-çðð `just a little`. ¦¨î-çðð denotes `similar`. These çðð Adjectives when qualifying a Noun in Plural or in the oblique form or a Feminine Noun (Singular or Plural, Direct or Oblique) change both the elements in accordance with the general rule. See:- (a) attached to the oblique form of a Noun or a Pronoun denotes `like`, which then functions as an Adjective: ±ððÚð-çðð cow-like`, ¨ôîÄð÷-çðð `dog-like`, Ùðô»ð-çðð `me-like`, ÃðôÙð-çðð `you-like`, £Ðð-çðð `them-like`. The çðð of these Adjectives changes in the oblique and the Feminine like ordinary ¡ð-Adjectives. çðð is also added to the ¨îð or Üð or Ððð forms for denoting similarity if quality, possession etc.: ×ðÐÇÜ ¨îð-çðð Ùðôüè `a face like that of a monkey`, Note that both ¨îð,Üð, Ððð and çðð are affected by Gender, Number and Case. çðð with ¨îð÷ýá and ¨îðøÐð denotes `any one` and `which one`, respectively: ¨îð÷ýá-çðó ò¨îÃðð×ð `any book`, ¨îðøÐð-çðó ò¨îÃðð×ð `which book?` çðð with ¨îð÷ýá and ¨îðøÐð denotes `any one` and `which one`, respectively: ¨îð÷ýá-çðó ò¨îÃðð×ð `any book`, ¨îðøÐð-çðó ò¨îÃðð×ð `which book?` `Degree of qualities etc. are usually denoted with the help of the Case-sign çð÷ attached to the Noun or Pronoun (in oblique form) with which comparison is made. See:- The Indirect Objects (which are usually persons) of the Verbs meaning `to tell, say, ask for, beg, demand, claim, request`: Øððýá Ðð÷ ÜðÙð çð÷ ¨îèð ò¨î ........`brother told Ram that.........`; ÜðÙð çð÷ ¶ð÷¾ð `younger than Ram`, Ùð÷ü is similarly used (in the ``selective`` sense) for denoting superiority of one out of two or more. See Manner: — ÏÚððÐð çð÷ çðôÐðð÷ `listen with attention (attentively)»; Çð÷Ððð÷ü Ùð÷ü ×ðÀÿó `bigger of the two`, In literarry Hindi, the phrase ¨îó ¡Ñð÷êðð may be substitued for çð÷. ÜðÙð ¨îó ¡Ñð÷êðð ¶ð÷¾ð `younger as compared to Ram`. The words ¸ÚððÇð or ¡òÏð¨î `more` and ¨îÙð `less` may be prefixed to Adjectives for denoting comparison: âðð÷è÷ çð÷ ¸ÚððÇð (¨îÙð) ò¾¨îð¤ `more (less) durable than iron`, Adjectives denoting quality, number and quantity may be used as Nouns, when they are affected by Case and Number in the same way as Nouns ×ðÀÿð÷ü Ðð÷, ¶ð÷¾ð÷ü çð÷, ýÃðÐð÷ çð÷, ¦¨î Ðð÷, µððÜ Ðð÷, ×ðèôÃðð÷ü ¨îð÷, ¶ð÷ò¾Úðð÷ü ¨îð÷, ×ðôÜó çð÷; ¡ÑðÐðð used as a Noun denotes `a thing`, or person belonging to oneself, ¨ôî¶., however, does not change: ¨ôî¶ Ùð÷ü (Plural). (a) Two sets of Adjectives derived from pronouns may particularly be noted- denoting quality ¦÷çðð `of this kind` (from Úðè), ãðøçðð `of that kind` (from ãðè), ¨øîçðð `of what kind` (from ¨îðøÐð-©Úðð), ¸ðøçðð `of which kind` (Relative from ¸ðð÷), Ãðøçðð `of that kind` (from çðð÷, archaic). Compare çðð forms. (ii) denoting quantity - ýÃðÐðð `this much` (from Úðè), The Plurals of ýÃðÐðð etc. may denote Number: ýÃðÐð÷ ¡ðÇÙðó `so many men`, ò¨îÃðÐðó ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü `how many books?`, ò¨îÃðÐð÷ Òîâð `how many fruits?` All these are affected by Gender and Case like ¡ð-ending Adjectives, and may be used also as Nouns. (for corresponding Adverbs, see :- The pronominal Adverbs, like the pronominal Adjectives (137) are derived from Demonstrative, Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. These are:- ¡×ð `now`, Úðèðû `here`, ýÏðÜ `hither`, Úðð÷ü `thus` (from Úðè); — - ãðèðû `there`, £ÏðÜ `thither`, (from ãðè); ¸ð×ð `when`, ¸ðèðû `where`, ò¸ðÏðÜ `whither`, ¸Úðð÷ü `as` (from ¸ðð÷); ¨î×ð `when?`, ¨îèðû `where`, ò¨îÏðÜ `whither?`, ©Úðð÷ü `why?` from (¨îðøÐð); Ãð×ð `then`, Ãðèðû `there`, òÃðÏðÜ `thither`, ÃÚðð÷ü `so, in the same way` (from çðð÷). Ãðèðùü and òÃðÏðÜ (except in proverbs) are archaic or dialectic and as such should not be used. The other two Adverbs derived from çðð÷ [ the archaic correlative Pronoun 110 (iii), viz. Ãð×ð and ÃÚðð÷ü] are affiliated to ãðè (so that the second series in the above list would be Ãð×ð, ãðèðû £ÏðÜ ÃÚðð÷ü). Note that ©Úðð÷ü does not mean `how`. The word for `how` is ¨øîçð÷ (287), or ©Úðð÷ü ¨îÜ (ðܵðèðòµð 285-1). Of the Pronominal adverbs listed above: (a) ¡×ð, ¸ð×ð, ¨î×ð and Ãð×ð are Adverbs of Time; The Present and Past Participles (See :-Participles are verbal adjectives qualifying noun (or pronoun) but retaining some properties of verbs. Hindi has two kinds of Participles, Present and Past. (a) Formation of Present and Past Participles has already been explained in 185 and 195:
etc. are Present Participles.
etc. are Past Participles. Both the Participles are affected by the Gender, the Number, and the Case of the Nouns or Pronouns which they qualify. µðâðÃðð, µðâðð are Masc. sg., µðâðÃð, µðâð÷; Masc. pl., µðâðÃðó and µðâðó Fem. sg. or pl. The oblique forms for Masc. sg. and pl. is also µðâðÃð, µðâð÷; Fem. forms remain unchanged in the oblique.) are Adjectives, derived from verbs: ×ðèÃðð ÑððÐðó `flowing water`, ×ðóÃð÷ òÇÐð `past days`. Adjectives may, of course, be used as parts of Predicate and undergo the usual changes the usual changes due to Gender, Number and Case: ±ððÀÿó ®ðÀÿó ¨îÜð÷ `stop the carriage.` But if an Adjective is used as a predicative word referring to an object which has ¨îð÷, it (the Adjective) remains unchanged. See :- The Object of a Verb in the neutral Construction (174 (c)]; ÜðÙð Ðð÷ âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ Ç÷®ðð `Ram saw the boy`, The Object of a Verb requiring a predicative word (referring to the object): ãðè òÐðÏðáÐðÃðð ¨îð÷ ÑððÑð ÙððÐðÃðð èø `he regards poverty as a sin`; ±ððÀÿó ¨îð÷ ®ðÀÿð ¨îÜð÷ `stop the carriage`, The words ¡òÃð, ¡Ãðóãð, ¡ÃÚðÐÃð, ×ðèôÃð, ×ðÀÿð, Ùðèð etc. prefixed to an Adjective (of quality) denote `very, extremely`: ¡òÃð ªõîÜ `very cruel`, ¡Ãðóãð Çô:®ðÇ `extremely painful`, ¡ÃÚðÐÃð çðôÐÇÜ `extremely` beautiful`, ×ðèôÃð ¶ð÷¾ð `very small, or young`, ×ðÀÿð ØððÜó `very heavy`, ÙðèðØðÚððÐð¨î `extremely fearful`: ¡òÃð ªõîÜ `very cruel`, ¡Ãðóãð Çô:®ðÇ `extremely painful`, ¡ÃÚðÐÃð çðôÐÇÜ `extremely` beautiful`, ×ðèôÃð ¶ð÷¾ð `very small, or young`, ×ðÀÿð ØððÜó `very heavy`, ÙðèðØðÚððÐð¨î `extremely fearful`. The Sanskrit comparative and superlative endings ÃðÜ and ÃðÙð are usually attached to only Tatsama Adjectives for denoting more, very, extremely, highly etc. ¨îò¿ÐðÃðÜ `more difficult`, òÑßÚðÃðÙð `very dear, dearest, darling`. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
CHAPTER XX | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Numerals are Adjectives indicating Number. They may be Cardinal, Ordinal, or Multiplicative. Cardinals are used for counting: ¦¨î Òîâð `one fruit`, Çð÷ ³ðð÷Àÿ÷ `two horses`, ÃðóÐð ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü `three books,» çððø ¡ðÇÙðó `a hundred men`. Ordinals are used for denoting `position or order in a series`. Ñðèâðð Ñðð¿ `the first lesson`, ÇõçðÜó ò¨îÃðð×ð `the second book`, ÃðóçðÜð ³ðÜ `the thrid house`. Multiplicatives indicate multiplication: Çô±ðôÐðð `double`, Çð÷èÜð `two-fold`, Ççð ±ðôÐðð `ten-fold`, çððø±ðôÐðð `hundred-fold`. The Hindi Cardinals are as follows: ¦¨î one Çð÷ two (i) ¶: `six` is also written as ¶è. However, ¶÷ÿ or ¶ø approximates the current Hindi pronunciation of the word. Above `hundred`, the numbers proceed regularly: ¦¨î çððø ¦¨î 101, ¦¨î çððø Çð÷ 102, ÃðóÐð çððø µððÜ 304 Ñððûµð è¸ððÜ Çð÷ çððø Ñðµµðóçð 5225 etc. Note:- There is no change in the form of the above numerals due to Gender or Case. As for Number, obviously, ¦¨î is Singular and the rest are Plural by nature, (a) Nouns denoting measure, weight etc., when preceded by a numeral or by an Adjective denoting indefinite number: (153), are used as Adjectives (of quantity): Çð÷ ±ðºð ¨îÑðÀÿð `two yards of cloth`; See:- (a) Masculine Nouns signifying duration attach the special ending-¡ð÷ü for denoting a large but indefinite Number: ×ðÜçð `year` ×ðÜçðð÷ü `several years`; ÙðèóÐðð `month` `several months`. This ¡ð÷ü is really a numerical ending. All the modifications that a Noun undergoes with regared to Number and Case (Direct or Oblique) can be tabulated as follows - DIRECT OBLIQUE Sg. Pl Sg. Pl. 1. Masc. — ¡ð Nouns — ¦- ¦- ¡ð÷ü or thus:- SINGULAR PLURAL Direct Oblique Direct Oblique 1. Masc.- ¡ð Nouns --… ¦ ¦… ..¡ð÷ü See: A large but indefinite number is denoted by ÇòçðÚðð÷ü `tens`, ×ðóòçðÚðð÷ü `twenties, scores`, ÑðµµðóòçðÚðð÷ü, Ñðµððçðð÷ü, çðøü¨îÀð÷ü, è¸ððÜð÷ü, âðð®ðð÷ü, ¨îÜð÷Àÿð÷ü, (but Ãðóçðð÷ü, µððâðóçðð÷ü çðð¿ð÷ü etc. are not used). These forms which may be called `Multitudinous`, are not affected by Gender and Case. Notice the difference between Ççðð÷ü and ÇòçðÚðð÷ü, ×ðóçðð÷ü and ×ðóòçðÚðð÷ü etc. Ççðð÷ü denotes `several tens`, ×ðóçðð÷ü denotes `all twenty`, ×ðóòçðÚðð÷ü denotes `several scores`. Nouns signifying duration, and those signifying measure, weight etc. assume similar forms when a large and indefinite number or quantity is denoted (83). This ¡ð÷ü may be regarded as the obliquePlural sign used for the direct Plural (93). ÙðèóÐðð÷ü ×ðóÃð ±ð¦ `a number of months passed`. But all these Nouns can have only the direct Plural form when preceded by a numeral or by an Adjective denoting an indefinite number. Thus ÃðóÐð ÙðèóÐð÷, ¨îýá ×ðÜçð. Nouns denoting measure etc., when preceded by a numeral, from their Plural in accordance with 145-b: Çð÷ ÙðÐð ÇõÏð, ÃðóÐð ±ððÀÿó ¡Ððð¸ð etc. Nouns denoting measure, weight etc. similarly attach ¡ð÷ü for expressing a large but indefinite quantity: ÙðÐðð÷ü ¡Ððð¸ð `maunds and maunds of grain`; Á÷Üð÷ü Òîâð `heaps and heaps of fruits`; ±ððòÀÿÚðð÷ü âð¨îÀÿó `cartloads of firewood`, etc. ÙðÐðð÷ü, etc. are in such cases, used as Adjectives (156). It is to be noted that in the Singular Oblique forms, there is only one change — ¡ð to ¦, occurring in Masc. In the Plural, all Oblique forms have ¡ð÷ü. The Direct Plural has ¡ð÷ü [ in Fem. ý, ýá and Úðð Nouns, -¦û (in the remaining Fem.)]. See, however, 83 where, as a special case, ¡ð÷ü is iattached for forming an apparently Direct Plural. The Positions or Case-Signs are treated in Chapter VI. See: A numeral + a noun denoting measure, weight etc. is treated as an Adjective also as regards the change of form due to Number and Case (but not Gender). Thus, Çð÷ ÑÚððâð÷ ÇõÏð `two cups of milk`, ÃðóÐð ¾ð÷¨îÜ÷ ¡ðÙð `three basketfuls of mangoes`, (ÑÚððâð÷: Masc. Pl. and ¾ð÷¨îÜ÷: Masc. Pl. like ¡µ¶÷: Masc. Pl. like ¡µ¶÷: Masc. Pl. (127-b); but Çð÷ ÑÚððâðó ÇõÏð, ÃðóÐð ±ððÀÿó ýáüÏðÐð (like ¡µ¶ó Fem. Plural:127-b, not ÑÚððòâðÚððû, ±ððòÀÿÚððû like âðÀÿò¨îÚððû). Also, Çð÷ ÑÚððâð÷ ÇõÏð Ùð÷ü (not....ÑÚððâðð÷ü ....), ÃðóÐð ¾ð÷¨îÜ÷ ¡ðÙð çð÷ (not ....¾ð÷¨îÜð÷ü....): like ¡µ¶÷ Masc. Pl. in the oblique. However, when collective sense is intended, the Nouns retain the singular form: ÃðóÐð ¾ð÷¨îÜð ¡ðÙð, Çð÷ ×ðó³ðð ¸ðÙðóÐð etc. A numeral + a noun denoting measure, weight etc. is treated as an Adjective also as regards the change of form due to Number and Case (but not Gender). Thus, Çð÷ ÑÚððâð÷ ÇõÏð `two cups of milk`, ÃðóÐð ¾ð÷¨îÜ÷ ¡ðÙð `three basketfuls of mangoes`, (ÑÚððâð÷: Masc. Pl. and ¾ð÷¨îÜ÷: Masc. Pl. like ¡µ¶÷: Masc. Pl. like ¡µ¶÷: Masc. Pl. (127-b); but Çð÷ ÑÚððâðó ÇõÏð, ÃðóÐð ±ððÀÿó ýáüÏðÐð (like ¡µ¶ó Fem. Plural:127-b, not ÑÚððòâðÚððû, ±ððòÀÿÚððû like âðÀÿò¨îÚððû). Also, Çð÷ ÑÚððâð÷ ÇõÏð Ùð÷ü (not....ÑÚððâðð÷ü ....), ÃðóÐð ¾ð÷¨îÜ÷ ¡ðÙð çð÷ (not ....¾ð÷¨îÜð÷ü....): like ¡µ¶÷ Masc. Pl. in the oblique. However, when collective sense is intended, the Nouns retain the singular form: ÃðóÐð ¾ð÷¨îÜð ¡ðÙð, Çð÷ ×ðó³ðð ¸ðÙðóÐð etc. Some of the regular numerals are replaced by Collective Adjectives (which are, in fact, Nouns of the same type as those referred to in 145 above). Thus ¸ðð÷Àÿð or ¸ðð÷Àÿó `pair`=Çð÷, µððø¨îÀÿð = µððÜ, Ñðü¸ðð = Ñððûµð, ¶©¨îð = ¶è, ǸðáÐð = dozen = ×ððÜè, ×ðóçðó or ¨îð÷Àÿó=×ðóçð=`score; çðøü¨îÀÿð = çððø. These are treated as Nouns and may be qualified by the regular numerals: Çð÷ ¸ðð÷Àÿ÷ (or ¸ðð÷Àÿð) `two pairs` = four, ÃðóÐð µððø¨îÀÿ÷ `three fours` = 12, Ñððûµð ǸðáÐð `five dozens` = 60, Ççð ×ðóçðó `ten scores` = 200, etc. çðøü¨îÀÿð is also used in the sense of `per hundred` or `per cent`:¡ðÙð Ççð ÝÑðÚð÷ çðøü¨îÀÿð ò×ð¨îÃð÷ èø `mangoes are sold at ten Rupees per hundred`,ÃðóÐð ÝÑðÚð÷ çðøü¨îÀÿð çðõÇ `interest at three Rupees per cent`.Note:- In accordance with 145 (b), ¸ðð÷Àÿð, µððø¨îÀÿð and çðøü¨îÀÿð (which are Masc.) may or may not change to ¸ðð÷Àÿ÷, µððø¨îÀÿ÷, and çðøü¨îÀÿ÷ in the plural. Ñðü¸ðð and ¶©¨îð, however, change regularly to Ñðü¸ð÷ and ¶©¨÷î. ¸ðð÷Àÿó, ×ðóçðó and ¨îð÷Àÿó being Feminine, remain unchanged. Fractions are expressed as follows :- 1/4 = ¦¨î ×ð¾÷ µððÜ (one divided by four).or Ñððãð (used mainly for denoting weights): ¨îð÷ýá, âð±ðØð±ð or ÑßðÚð: placed before a numeral or ¦¨î placed after it denotes approximation: Çð÷-¦¨î `one or two`, Çð÷-ÃðóÐð, ÃðóÐð-µððÜ, µððÜ-Ñððûµð, Ñððûµð-¶: etc. ¡¨÷îâðð and ¦¨îð¨îó both meaning `lonely, single`, and Çô¨÷îâðð meaning `not alone, not lonely, companioned (by one person)» are noteworthy. ¡ðÏðð, ¡¨÷îâðð and Çô¨÷îâðð are affected by Gender, Number and Case like ordinary ¡ð-ending Adjectives: ¡ðÏðó, ¡ðÏð÷, ¡¨÷îâðó, ¡¨÷îâð÷, Çô¨÷îâðó, Çô¨÷îâð÷ etc. ¦¨îð¨îó has ¦¨îðò¨îÐðó in Feminine. çðøü¨îÀÿð changes to çðøü¨îÀÿ÷ in Plural and Oblique. The following Adjectives denote indefinite number: ¨ôî¶ `some, a few` (also quantity `a little`) (111-ii). A numeral repeated denotes `...........at a time` or `........per piece, per head, per day` etc.: Çð÷-Çð÷ âðÀÿ¨îð÷ü ¨îð÷ ¡ðÐð÷ Çð÷ `let two boys come at a time`. ¡ð÷ü attached to a numeral denotes aggregation. In case of Çð÷, Ððð÷ü instead of ¡ð÷ü is attached: Çð÷Ððð÷ü both These are not Plurals, but `aggregatives`. âðÀÿ¨îð÷ü Ðð÷, âðÀÿ¨îð÷ü ¨îð÷, âðÀÿò¨îÚðð÷ü çð÷, âðÀÿò¨îÚðð÷ü ¨îð÷ etc. A large but indefinite number is denoted by ÇòçðÚðð÷ü `tens`, ×ðóòçðÚðð÷ü `twenties, scores`, ÑðµµðóòçðÚðð÷ü, Ñðµððçðð÷ü, çðøü¨îÀð÷ü, è¸ððÜð÷ü, âðð®ðð÷ü, ¨îÜð÷Àÿð÷ü, (but Ãðóçðð÷ü, µððâðóçðð÷ü çðð¿ð÷ü etc. are not used). These forms which may be called `Multitudinous`, are not affected by Gender and Case. Notice the difference between Ççðð÷ü and ÇòçðÚðð÷ü, ×ðóçðð÷ü and ×ðóòçðÚðð÷ü etc. Ççðð÷ü denotes `several tens`, ×ðóçðð÷ü denotes `all twenty`, ×ðóòçðÚðð÷ü denotes `several scores`. Nouns signifying duration, and those signifying measure, weight etc. assume similar forms when a large and indefinite number or quantity is denoted (83). This ¡ð÷ü may be regarded as the obliquePlural sign used for the direct Plural (93). ÙðèóÐðð÷ü ×ðóÃð ±ð¦ `a number of months passed`. But all these Nouns can have only the direct Plural form when preceded by a numeral or by an Adjective denoting an indefinite number. Thus ÃðóÐð ÙðèóÐð÷, ¨îýá ×ðÜçð. Nouns denoting measure etc., when preceded by a numeral, from their Plural in accordance with 145-b: Çð÷ ÙðÐð ÇõÏð, ÃðóÐð ±ððÀÿó ¡Ððð¸ð etc. Ordinals: The first nine ordinals are - From seven onwards ãððû is added to numerals. ¡ð-ending Adjectives : The Sanskrit ordinals ÑßÆðÙð `first`, òÎÃðóÚð `second`, ÃðöÃðóÚð `third` etc. are also in use, particularly in literary Hindi: ÑßÆðÙð å÷Âðó `first division`, µðÃðôÆðá ¨îêðð `fourth class` (in a school), ëðÚðð÷Çäð Ñðòܵ¶÷Ç `the thirteenth chapter` etc. Both Sanskrit and Hindi ordinals are in use for denoting the dates of each half of the month (according to the Indian calendar). The dates of the bright half of the month are referred to by prefixing the word äðô©âðð or by appending the word çðôÇó to the numeral. For referring to dates of the dark half, the word ¨öîæÂðð is prefixed, or the word ãðÇó appended. The first of each half is ÑßòÃðÑðÇð (Skt.) or ÑðÀÿãðð, ÑðòÜãðð, ÑðÜãðð (Hindi). The fifteenth of the dark half (i.e. the new-moon day) is ¡ÙððãðçÚðð or ¡Ùððãðçð (Skt. ¡ÙððãðçÚðð) and of the bright half (i.e. the full-moon day) is ÑðõòÂðáÙðð, ÑðõÂðáÙððçðó (Skt.) ÑðõÜÐðÙððçðó or ÑðõÐðð÷ü. The remaining thirteen days of each half are named as follows:- Sanskrit Hindi 2nd òÎÃðóÚðð Îø¸ð, Çõ¸ð Some of tthe Hindi names given above are only used in certain area and in others ÑðüòµðÙðó, çðòÃðÙðó, ¡òæ¾Ùðó, ÇôãððÇçðó etc. are prevalent. Dates of the months according to the Western calendar are denoted by the regular Feminine forms of the Hindi ordinal: Ñðèâðó, ÇõçðÜó, ÃðóçðÜó etc. These are, of course, Adjectives qualifyingthe Noun ÃððÜó®ð `date` which may be implied or expressed. Ñðèâðð denotes also `foremost` or `most important`. With reference to `age` or `era`, it may denote `by-gone` or `early`: Ñðèâð÷ Úðô±ð (or ºðÙððÐð÷) Ùð÷ü `in the early (or by-gone) age`. For denoting relative ages of brothers, sisters etc., the following Adjectives are inuse ×ðÀÿð (×ðÀÿó) `the eldest`, Ùðû»ðâðð (Ùðû»ðâðó) `second` (only in some Hindi areas), çðûü»ðâðð (çðû»ðâðó) `the third`, ¶ð÷¾ð (¶ð÷¾ó) `the youngest`. For denoting relative sizes, the following Adjectives are in use: ×ðÀÿð `big`, Ùðû»ðð÷âðð or Ùðû»ðâðð `middling`, ¶ð÷¾ð `small`, For denoting position etc. the following Adjectives are used: ¡±ðâðð `fore, front`, òÑð¶ÿâðð `back, hind`, ò×ðµðâðð `middle, intermediate` ¡òÐÃðÙð `last`, ¡ðò®ÿðÜó `last, final`. Multiplicatives are formed by attaching ±ðôÐðð (`multiplied by`) to the numerals. The numerals 2 to 8 are slightly modified: Çô±ðôÐðð, Çô±ðÐðð or ÇõÐðð `double`, òÃð±ðôÐðð `three-fold`, Ñðüµð±ðôÐðð `five -fold`, ¶ø±ðôÐðð `six -fold`, çðÃð±ðôÐðð `seven-fold`, ¡¿±ðôÐðð `eight-fold`. After ¡¿±ðôÐðð the forms are regular. Ðððø±ðôÐðð `nine-fold`, Ççð±ðôÐðð `ten-fold`, çððø±ðôÐðð `hundred-fold`. These changes are like ordinary ¡ð -ending Adjectives in Feminine, Plural and oblique: òÃð±ðôÐðó, òÃð±ðôÐð÷ etc. ±ðôÐðð may be attached also to fractions (more than one): çðãðð ±ðôÐðð = 1 1/4 times as much. ý¨îèÜð `single, not double or multiple, lean`, Çð÷èÜð `two-fold, stout`, and òÃðèÜð, Ãð÷èÜð `treble, three-fold`, µððøèÜð `quadruple, four-fold`, çðãððÚðð `1 1/4 times as much` and ÀþÚðð÷Áÿð ` one half as much`, are special forms. See:- èÜð See:- ý¨îèÜð `single, not double or multiple, lean`, Çð÷èÜð `two-fold, stout`, and òÃðèÜð, Ãð÷èÜð `treble, three-fold`, µððøèÜð `quadruple, four-fold`, çðãððÚðð `1 1/4 times as much` and ÀþÚðð÷Áÿð ` one half as much`, are special forms. The pronominal Adjectives ýÃðÐðð, £ÃðÐðð, ò¨îÃðÐðð etc., when used in plural, may denote indefinite number. See:- ýÃðÐðð `this much` (from Úðè), In numeration, units = ý¨îðýá, tens = Çèðýá, The words ÑßòÃð and Õîó prefixed to a numeral denote `per`: ÑßòÃð (Õîó) çðø¨îÀÿð `per hundred`, ÑßòÃð (Õîó) è¸ððÜ `per thousand`. But ÑßÃÚð÷¨î (ÑßòÃð+¦¨î) or èÜ÷¨î (èÜ + ¦¨î) `everyone`. (For weights, measures, names of days and months etc., see AppendixIV-3-8). ¦¨î signifies also `a certain`: ¦¨î òÇÐð `one dya`, ¦¨î ×ððÜ `once upon a time`, ¦¨î ¡ðÇÙðó `a certain man`. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
VERBS
CHAPTER XXI | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Besides the above, there are also other Verbs which help in forming certain«Voices», «Moods» and«Tenses» of all the Verbs See: Each Hindi Verb has a number of forms for signifying-- (1) the type or the character of the action denoted by the Verb (Terminate, Progressive, Habitual etc.); In Hindi, a Verb is modified according to the gender number and person of either the subject, or the object, or it has reference only to the action. This gave rise to what are known as constructions. Hindi Verbs had three constructions:- Subjectival, Objectival& Nautral (a) In subjectival construction, the Verb has the same Number, Person and Gender as its logical object (the person or thing to whom the action is directed): âð"ÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð ÑðÁÿó «the boy read the book`, (c) In Neutral Construction, the Verb agrees neither with the subject, nor with the object as regard Number, Person and Gender, but is always placed in the third person singular masculine form. £çðÐð÷ ¶óü¨îð «he sneezed`, These are called Auxiliary Verbs or merely Auxiliaries. Hindi has only three Auxiliaries: (1) èð÷Ððð `to be`, with its several forms. Each Hindi Verb has a number of forms for signifying-- (1) the type or the character of the action denoted by the Verb (Terminate, Progressive, Habitual etc.); ASPECT (a) The forms of a Verb indicating the type of the character of the action etc. denoted by it are called Aspect. (b) Hindi Verbs have numerous `Aspects`, such as Terminate, Progressive, Iterative, Intensive, Effective, Inceptive etc. All the Aspects (i.e. Verb-forms denoting nature of action), except the Terminate, are made by combining the main Verb with various subsidiary Verbs. (c) The two most important Aspects are the Terminate and Progressive. (1) The Terminate Aspect «represents the act as a whole, as a fact». It is«a statement of fact», the action being«thought of as a whole, not as continuing». «It has two quite different meanings. It expresses a general or a particular fact: «Lead sinks` (general fact). «I see him coming` (particular act)» (Curme). (2) The Progressive Aspect«represents the action as progressing, proceeding, hence as not ended». «He is working in the garden`, «several books are lying in the table` (Curme). The action in the above sentences is represented as actually going on. (d) The Terminate forms are the common, simple forms of Verb as explained in the following chapters. The progressive forms are made with the help of the subsidiary Verb ÜèÐðð `to continue `. . VOICE The forms of a Verb indicating the relations of the subject to the action etc. (denoted by the Verb) are called voices. Hindi has three voices active, passive and impersonal. (a) «The active voice indicates that the subjects does something is, or is becoming something». Thus, in the active voice the grammatical subject («that about which something has been said`) is also the logical subject-- the `doer` ÜðÙð ¸ððÃðð èø «Ram goes`, ÑðÄðð ò±ðÜð `the leaf fell`, âð"¨îð ×ðóÙððÜ èø `the boy is ill`, ãðè ÑðÁÿ÷±ðó `she will read`, £çðÐð÷ Ùðô»ð÷ ×ðôâððÚðð `he called me`, ÙðøÐð÷ ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ Ç÷®ðð `I saw Ram`, ÜðÙð `Ram`, ÑðÄðð «leaf`, âð"ÿ¨îð `Boy`, ãðè `she`, £çðÐð÷ `he`, and ÙðøÐð÷ `I` are the grammatical subjects. The sentences say something about them. They are also the logical subject-- the doers of the act denoted by the Verbs. (For Ðð÷ see * Ðð÷ is attached to the Subject of a Transitive Verb when it is used in the Past (Participle) form: âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ Òîâð ®ððÚðð `the boy ate the fruit`; But the Subject of an Intransitive Verb in the past has the direct form: âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ðÚðð `the boy came`; Exceptions:- A few Transitive Verbs like âððÐðð `to bring,» ØðõâðÐðð `to forget`, ×ðð÷âðÐðð `to speak`, do not take the Subject with Ðð÷; while with çðÙð»ðÐðð `to understand` and ×ð¨îÐðð `to chatter`, Ðð÷ is optional. See: âðÀÿ¨îð ò¨îÃðð×ð âððÚðð `the boy brought the book`; (b) «The Passive Voice represents the subject as acted upon». Thus, in the Passive Voice, the grammatical subject is not the logical subject the doer, but the logical object-- the person or thing towards whom the action is directed. äðëðô ÙððÜð ±ðÚðð The enemy was killed`, äðëðô `enemy`, Ùðô»ð÷ «I` and Úðè `It` are the grammatical subjects: something has been said about them. They are, however, not the logical subjects-- the doers of killed called, and said. On the other hand, they are the logical objects: the actions of `killing`, «calling`, and `saying` are directed towards them. The logical subjects are not mentioned in the above sentences. They may be guessed from the context («the enemy was killed by us`), or, it may be necessary to mention them («it is said-- unnecessary to say, by whom), sometimes, however, the logical subject is mentioned-- always in the oblique form with çð÷ (* 98.a), Ùðô»ðçð÷ µððÚð Ððèóü Ñðó ¸ððÃðó «I cannot take tea` (literally tea cannot be taken by me) Note: The passive voice is naturally restricted to transitive Verbs. (c) The impersonal voice is restricted to Intransitive Verbs. It has either no subject at all. In which case the action denoted by the verbs serves as the subject; or, if there is a subject, it (the subject) is represented as able or unable to do something (i.e. the action denoted by the Verb) and has the oblique form with çð÷ (* 98-a) The Impersonal Voice is always in the Neutral Construction. See: (c) In Neutral Construction, the Verb agrees neither with the subject, nor with the object as regard Number, Person and Gender, but is always placed in the third person singular masculine form. £çðÐð÷ ¶óü¨îð «he sneezed`, µðâðð÷, ¡×ð çðð÷Úðð ¸ð𦠫come let us now go to sleep` (Literally, come let it be slept`). ÃðôÙðçð÷ µðâðð ¸ðð¦±ðð? «will you be able to walk ?, (Literally, «can (will) it be walked by you ?). Ùðô»ðçð÷ £"ð Ððèóü ¸ððÃðð «I am unable to get up`, (Literally, «it cannot be got up (arisen) by me`). The first sentence has no subject. The action (sleeping) itself, in a way, is the subject (about which something has been said). In the other two sentences, the subjects ÃðôÙðçð÷ and Ùðô»ðçð÷ are mentioned as `able to walk` and `unable to get up`, and have çð÷. The Impersonal Voice is, in fact, the Passive Voice used for Intransitive Verbs. The Verb forms discussed in the following chapters are all Active. For Passive and impersonal forms. MOOD The form of the work indicating the manner of the action (whether it just happens, or is ordered to be done, or is dependent upon a condition etc.) are called moods. Hindi has three moods--- Imperative, indicative and subjunctive. (a) The imperative mood is a form of Verb expressive and action as a command, a request, a warning, prohibition etc. The subject is frequently omitted but can be easily guessed from both the context and the form of the work. (Ãðõ) ¸ðð `go` (thou) (ÃðôÙð) ãðèðü Ðð ¸ððÐðð don`t (you) ever go there, ¡ðÑð ¡ðýᦠ`please come`. (b) The imperative mood is form of Verb which represents the action as a fact, or makes a query about it. ãðè ±ðÚðð `he went` ©Úðð ãðè ¸ðð¦±ðð? `will he go`? âð"ÿ¨îð ®ð÷âð Üèð èø `the boy is playing`. (c) The subjunctive mood is a form of Verb, which represents the action as a desire, a hope, a possibility, a probability, a condition, a presumption etc. It has four varieties :- (i) Optative, expressing desire, demand, entreaty, requirement; £çð÷ µððòè¦ ò¨î ãðè ³ðÜ ¸ð𦠫he ought to go home` (ii) Potential, expressing possibility; çðüØðãð èø, ãðè ¡ðÚðð èð÷ «he may have come` (iii) Contingent, expressing a contrary-to-fact condition:- TENSE The forms of a Verb indicating the time of the action are called tenses. Hindi has six tenses: present, past, future, present perfect, habitual past and past perfect. (a) The present tense represent the act as now going on, or as habitual, repeated or characteristics or it expresses general truth. ãðè ¡ð Üèð èø «he is coming` (act going on- progressive) Note: The Verb in the first sentence has progressive aspect. The rest of the Verbs have terminate the aspect. See: (a) The forms of a Verb indicating the type of the character of the action etc. denoted by it are called Aspect. (b) Hindi Verbs have numerous `Aspects`, such as Terminate, Progressive, Iterative, Intensive, Effective, Inceptive etc. All the Aspects (i.e. Verb-forms denoting nature of action), except the Terminate, are made by combining the main Verb with various subsidiary Verbs. (c) The two most important Aspects are the Terminate and Progressive. (1) The Terminate Aspect «represents the act as a whole, as a fact». It is«a statement of fact», the action being«thought of as a whole, not as continuing». «It has two quite different meanings. It expresses a general or a particular fact: «Lead sinks` (general fact). «I see him coming` (particular act)» (Curme). (2) The Progressive Aspect«represents the action as progressing, proceeding, hence as not ended». «He is working in the garden`, «several books are lying in the table` (Curme). The action in the above sentences is represented as actually going on. (d) The Terminate forms are the common, simple forms of Verb as explained in the following chapters. The progressive forms are made with the help of the subsidiary Verb ÜèÐðð `to continue `. These are explained in Chapter XIII * 262. (b) The past tense represent some (particular) act as going on, or as done, in the past. ãðè ¸ðð Üèð Æðð «he was going` (going on progressive), Note:- The (simple) past is not use with reference to an act habitually or regularly done in the past: for this habitual past is use. (See: (e) Habitual past tense represents an act as habitually or regularly done in the past. ãðè çðÇð çðÃÚð ×ðð÷âðÃðð Æðð «He always spoke the truth`, (c) The future tense `represents and action or state as yet to take place or to come` into being`. ÜðÙð ¨îâð ¡ð¦±ðð «Ram will come to-morrow`, (d) The present perfect tense `represents a completed act the effect of which is still present` ÙðøüÐð÷ Úðè ò¨îÃðð×ð ÑðÁÿó èø «I have read this book`, (e) Habitual past tense represents an act as habitually or regularly done in the past. ãðè çðÇð çðÃÚð ×ðð÷âðÃðð Æðð «He always spoke the truth`, Note:- Use of habitual past with reference to a particular act (done, or going on, in the past) is now archaic or colloquial, except with few verbs for which (f) The past perfect tense represents a past action or state as completed act or before a certain past time (which may be expressed or implied): òÑð¶âð÷ çððâð Ùðøü ×ðÙ×ðýá ±ðÚðð Æðð «I had gone to Bombay (last year)», The tenses are treated in detailed in the following chapters: CONSTRUCTION In Hindi, a Verb is modified according to the gender number and person of either the subject, or the object, or it has reference only to the action. This gave rise to what are known as constructions. Hindi Verbs had three constructions:- Subjectival, Objectival& Nautral (a) In subjectival construction, the Verb has the same Number, Person and Gender as its logical object (the person or thing to whom the action is directed): âð"ÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð ÑðÁÿó «the boy read the book`, (c) In Neutral Construction, the Verb agrees neither with the subject, nor with the object as regard Number, Person and Gender, but is always placed in the third person singular masculine form. £çðÐð÷ ¶óü¨îð «he sneezed`, Note:- (I) The active has all the three constructions, the Passive has only the Objectival and the Neutral, while the Impersonal has only the Neutral: Active Ùðøü ¸ððÃðð èõû, Ùðø ±ðÚðð (Subjectival) (ii) In the Active voice, the Objectival and the Neutral constructions are possible only if the Verb has a past participle from (See Chapter XI). 175. The various«forms» discussed above--Aspect, Voice, Mood, Tense and Construction--are not always independent of each other, or distinctly and individually recognizable in each Verb. A single Verb often represents several«Forms». Thus, a Verb like µðâðÃðð èø.«he goes» has only two distinctive features,--Ãðð and èø. These represent mainly the Tense (Present), and the construction (Subjectivel: Masculine, Singular, Third Person). The Voice (Active), Aspect (Terminate) and Mood (Indicative) are indicated by the absence of the distinctive features of the other«Forms» (Passive or Impersonal Voices, Progressive Aspect, Imperative and subjunctive Mood). A Verb like (Úðè) çðôÐðð ¸ðð Üèð èø has several distinctive features: ¸ðð indicates Passive: Üèð indicates progressive Aspect, as well as objectival construction (Masculine, Singular, Third Person, agreeing with the object Úðè); and Üèð èø together indicate the Present Indicative Tense. (b) A Verb restricted by all the above«Forms» is called Finite. There are besides the `Finite Verb`, other Verbs which are restricted one or two of the«Forms». Such for example, are the Infinitive (like µðâðÐðð, ¸ððÐðð: Chapter X) and the Participles (like µðâðÃðð, µðâðð: Chapter XI). (c) A Root is the basic form of a Verb, which is modified into the various forms. µðâð is the root of µðâðÃðð èø, µðâðð, µðâð÷±ðð, µðâð÷ etc. (d) Roots are also capable of certain other modifications like Ç÷®ðÐðð `to see`, òÇ®ððÐðð «to show` and Çó®ðÐðð«to be seen». | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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(a) Of the three Voices referred to in 171, the Active (in its three constructions) is by far the most important. The forms (Imperative, Indicative and Subjunctive) discussed in this and the following chapters are all Active. The Passive and the Impersonal forms will be treated in Chapter XIV. As for the Aspect (170) all the forms given in these chapters are to be taken as Terminate, unless otherwise stated. Aspects will be treated along with Compound Verbs (Chapter XIII). Of the three moods referred to in 172, the Imperative has the simplest formation. This will, therefore, be discussed first. The Imperative Mood, as already stated (178), denotes command, request, warning, prohibition, entreaty etc. By its very nature, the Imperative cannot refer to the past: command or request is impossible with regared to a past action. The Imperative, therefore, is restricted to the Present and the Future Tenses. (In fact, the Imperative cannot refer even to the present, since what the speaker wants done can take place only after he has spoken: it is neither going on, nor completed at the moment of speaking. Some Imperative forms, however, refer specifically to future — relatively distant future. It is mainly for distinguishing these forms from the ordinary forms that the Imperative is said to have a present form as well). Since the Imperative denotes command, request etc., its proper domain is the second person. Indirect command request etc. made to a third person may be expressed by the subjunctive (optative) forms. See :- (a) ¡ð¦ (third person sg.) represenst the action mainly as a desire, wish, command, requirement, purpose; but also as a condition (although not contrary to fact), a supposition, a possibility etc., almost always with an implied reference to future. This form may be called ``Optative``. (b) The Optative forms have already been noted in connection with the Indicative Future forms (203). The forms for ¡ð `come` would be:-
For the roots µðâð and èð÷, the forms would be:- Singular Plural Singular Plural
There is no modification due to Gender. The Imperative forms of the present are made as follows:- In the second person singular, the bare root (with stress accent) is used:- (Ãðõ) ÑðÁÿ `read (thou)» Note: These forms can be used only for God, servants, young children, in affection for mother, sister etc. or for expressing anger. See :Ãðõ is used in addressing God, children and, occasionally, very intimate friends. It may also be used in anger or to express disrespect or in fondly addressing one`s mother, sister, younger brother etc. (but seldom father, uncle and grandfather). In the second person plural, — ¡ð÷ is appended to the root:- (ÃðôÙð) ÑðÁÿð÷ `read (you)», Note: The root Ç÷Ððð `to give` makes Çð÷ (not Ç÷¡ð÷). and âð÷Ððð `to take` makes âðð÷ (not âð÷¡ð÷). (ii) The alternative forms ¡ðãðð÷, ¸ððãðð÷ (instead of ¡ð¡ð÷, ¸ðð¡ð÷) etc., occasionally met with, should be discarded. (iii) The usage of second person plural form is similar to that of the second person plural pronoun ÃðôÙð. With the second person honorific pronoun ¡ðÑð See. ¡ðÑð is the polite and respectful form of address for all, both in the singular and the plural. (it is occasionally used also for a person `spoken about`.)- ý¦ is appended to the root. (¡ðÑð) ÑðòÁÿ¦ `please read`, Note: (i) The following roots have exceptional forms in the honorific: ¨îÜÐðð `to do` makes ¨îóò¸ð¦ (besides ¨îòܦ), But èõò¸ð¦ form èð÷Ððð `to be` is archaic and should be discarded. The correct form is èð÷ý¦ which is rarely used. ¡ðý¦, ¸ððý¦ etc. are also written ¡ðýÚð÷, ¸ððýÚð÷ etc. but the former are preferable. The honorific forms are used in the same way as the honorific Pronoun. See ¡ðÑð is the polite and respectful form of address for all, both in the singular and the plural. (it is occasionally used also for a person `spoken about`.) (a) The Future forms of the Imperative, both Singular and Plural, are identical with the Infinitive forms of roots — µðâðÐðð, ¡ðÐðð, ¸ððÐðð, ÑðÁÿÐðð etc. Ãðõ ãðèðû Ðð ¸ððÐðð `thou should not go there`, These forms usually imply advice or mild command. They are not used with the honorific pronoun, which has the optative form instead. See With the honorific pronoun, the Optatives may denote polite request or suggestion: ¡ðÑð ãðèðü Ðð ¸ðð¦û `you had better not go there` (180-a). The polite future Imperative is made by adding-ga to the honorfic forms:- ¡ðÑð ¨îâð ¡ðý¦±ðð `kindly come to-morrow`, These forms are identical with, and have been taken over from the polite future forms. . (a) An exceptionl (`Exclamatory`) Imperative, denoting emergency, danger, warning etc. is formed by adding — ýÚðð÷ to the root:- ÇðøòÀÿÚðð÷! ¡ð±ð âð±ðó! `run (come quick)! Fire has broken out!, These forms are used mainly in calling for help and are addressed to all persons within hearing. Their use as mere Future Imperatives is now archaic or dialectic. (b) The — Ððð Imperatives may similarly be used to denote warning, emergency or informal request:- £çð÷ Ðð ¶õÐðð! `don`t touch it! (it is hot, etc.)», (a) The Present Imperative forms can, of course, be also used with reference to Future also:- ÃðôÙð ¨îâð ãðèðû ¸ðð¡ð÷ `You go there to-morrow`. (b) The so-called `Imperative` forms for the first and third persons are really subjunctive (optative). See :- (a) ¡ð¦ (third person sg.) represenst the action mainly as a desire, wish, command, requirement, purpose; but also as a condition (although not contrary to fact), a supposition, a possibility etc., almost always with an implied reference to future. This form may be called ``Optative``. (b) The Optative forms have already been noted in connection with the Indicative Future forms (203). The forms for ¡ð `come` would be:-
For the roots µðâð and èð÷, the forms would be:- Singular Plural Singular Plural
There is no modification due to Gender. The Present Imperative is sometimes called the `Direct Imperative` and the Future Imperative the `Indirect Imperative.` The negative (prohibitive) forms of the Imperative are made by placing a ÙðÃð or Ðð immediately before the Verb. ÙðÃð is more emphatic and less polite. ÃðôÙð Ðð ¸ðð¡ð÷, ¡ðÑð Ðð ¸ððý¦, Ãðõ ÙðÃð ¸ðð Note:- (i) The Active Imperative does not have the Objectival or the Neutral construction. All the forms treated above are Active And have the Subjectival construction, the Verbs agreeing with the Subjects in Number and Person. The Imperative forms are not affected by Gender. (ii) For Passive and Impersonal forms, For Progressive forms, see: (a) ÜèÐðð as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: ãðè ¸ðð Üè ð èø `he is going`, ãðè ¸ððÃðð ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps going (habitually), ãðè ×ðø¿ð ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps sitting`, ãðè ¨ ð÷¾ ÑðèÐð÷ ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps wearing a coat, (b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect. It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods (¸ððÃðð Üè÷±ðð, µðâðÃðð Üèð, ×ðø¿÷ Üè÷, ÑðèÐð÷ Üèð èð÷Ãðð etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary ÜèÐðð is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past (¸ðð Üèð èø — ¸ðð Üèð Æðð) or in the Subjective forms ¡ðÃðð èð÷, ¡ðÃðð èð÷Ãðð, ¡ðÃðð èð÷±ðð, ¡ð Üèð èð÷, ¡ð Üèð èð÷Ãðð, ¡ð Üèð èð÷±ðð. In fact, ¡ð Üèð is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound ¡ð + ÜèÐðð, and as equivalent to ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð, ¸ððÃðð èô¡ð etc. (241). ãðè ¸ððÃðð èø (¸ðð Üèð èø) Present Indicative, The Üèð forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms (¸ððÃðð èø etc.). | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
CHAPTER XXIII | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The Indicative forms of a Verb either represent the action etc. as a fact or make a query about it. These forms can be of any of the six Tenses, and of any Number, Person and Gender. In the Active Voice (which alone is being discussed here), they can have any of the three `construction`. The Indicative Present is formed with the help of the Present Participl and the present forms of the Substantive Verb èø (èð÷) : ãðè µðâðÃðð èø `he moves`. The Present Participal is an Adjective derived from a Verb, and is formed by appending Ãðð to the bare root. Thus, the Present Participle of µðâð `move` is µðâðÃðð `moving`, of ¡ð `come`, it is ¡ðÃðð `coming`, of ¸ðð `go`, ¸ððÃðð `going` etc. Being an Adjective ending in -¡ð, the Present Perticiple is subject to the same modifications due to Number and Gender as an ordinary ¡ð-Adjecive (127). µðâðÃðð etc. are Masculine Singlar in form and may, therefore, be used if the subject is Masc. and Sing. With a Feminine subject (singular or plural) µðâðÃðð etc. change to µðâðÃðó etc.; and with a Masc. plural subject to µðâðÃð÷ (also oblique) etc. The Presen: forms of the Substantive Verb are as follows:- First Person -singular èõû plural èøü These are not affected by Gender. 188. Thus, the present Indicative forms of the root µðâð are as follows:- with a Masculine subject:- singular plural First Person Ùðøü µðâðÃðð èõü `I move`, èÙð µðâðÃð÷ èø `we move`. With a Feminine subject:- singular Plural 1st person Ùðøü µðâðÃðó èõû èÙð µðâðÃðó èøü Note: (i) AN oun-subject is always regarded as being in the Third Person. Thes, ÜðÙð ¸ððÃðð èø `Ram goes`, çðóÃðð ¸ððÃðó èø `Sita goes`, âðÀÿ¨÷î ¡ðÃð÷ èøü `the boys come`, âðÀÿò¨îÚððü ¸ððÃðó èøü `the girls come`. (ii) The honorific ¡ðÑð `you` is considered to be a Third Person plural Pronoun: ¡ðÑð ¸ððÃð÷ èøü `you go` (Fem. ¡ðÑð ¸ððÃðó èøü). The above forms have the Subjectival construction, sine the Verb agrees in Number, Person and Gender with the logical subject (`the doer`). In the Active Voice, the Present Indicative does not have the Objectival or the Neutral construction: the Verb must here always agree with the logical subject only. See:- (ii) In the Active voice, the Objectival and the Neutral constructions are possible only if the Verb has a past participle from (a) As per the Aspect, the above forms are Terminate: they represent the act (`moving` etc.) as a whole, a fact,- not as progressing. The progressive aspect (`he is going`) is expressed with the help of the Auxiliary Üèð, Üè÷,Üèó compounded with the main root. Thus:- ãðè ¸ðð Üèð èø `he is going`, The negative forms are made with the help of the particle Ððèóü placed immediately before the Verb. But in the negative sentence èø, èøü, etc. are, as a rule, omitted: ÜðÙð ç¨õîâð Ùð÷ü Ððèóü ÑðÁÿÃðð, ³ðÜ ÑðÜ ÑðÁÿÃðð èø `Ram does not study in a school, he studies at home. ` In asking questions, ©Úðð is generally added to the sentence usually in the beginning, but may be omitted, if the interrogation is evident from the context or form the intonation. See:- Interrogative Pronouns are used in asking questions. Hind has only two Interrogative Pronouns- ¨îð÷ýá and ©Úðð, the former usually referring tp `person` and the latter to `things` either in singular or in plural: ãðè ¨îðøÐð èø? `who is he?`; ©Úðð is really a neuter form — a rare oceeurremce in Hindi. ©Úðð (frequently expressed but occasionally implied) is used for denoting the interrogative nature of a sentence (except when another interrogativ word is present (192 Note): ©Úðð ãðè ¡ðÚðð èø? `has he come?`; For further uses of ©Úðð (as a Compound Pronoun),©Úðð-©Úðð `which things?`, `what things? ©Úðð is also used as Adverb expressing emphatic negation: ©Úðð ãðè ç¨õîâð ¸ððÃðð èø? `does he go to the school? Note:- But if the sentence contains an Interrogative Pronoun (in any capacity) or an Interrogative Pronominal Adjective or Adverb, the additional ©Úðð is omitted: Úðèðü ¨îðøÐð ÜèÃðð èø? `who lives here? (¨îðøÐð Subject)», In the rest of the Tenses and Moods, ©Úðð is used in the same manner. The Terminate or — Ãðð Present states a general or a particular fact:- ÜðÙð çðãð÷Ü÷ ç¨õîâð ¸ððÃðð èø `Ram goes to school in the morning (every day)». The first sentence states a general fact; the second refers, obviously, to a particular occasion. However, it may not always be obvious whether a — Ãðð from is referring to general or to a particular fact. In such cases, it becomes necessary to use the Üèð form which is more exolicit in its reference to a particular occasion. A sentence like ãðè »ðõ¿ ×ðð÷âðÃðð èø `he tells a lie` may mean either `he lies habitually`, or he is (on theis occasion) telling a lie`. If, therefore, the reference is to a particular occasion, ãðè »ðõ¿ ×ðð÷âð Üèð èø would be preferable. For denoting a continued action, the Üèð form is almost exclusively used:- âðÀÿ¨÷î ®ð÷ Üè÷ èøü `the boys are playing `. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
CHAPTER XXIV | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The Indicative Past is identical in form with the Past Participle of a Verb which, being an Adjective, is affected (like the Present Participle: 186) by the Number and Gender of the Subject (or of the Object, See below (a) The forms given in 196 (a) and (b) above have the Subjectival construction: the Verbs agree with the Subjects in Number and Gender. This, as a rule, is the case with all the Intransitive Verbs. With the Transitive Verbs, however, the Objectival construction is the rule. The Verb in such cases agrees with the Object in Gender and Number and the Subject is placed in the Oblique form with Ðð÷. (Ðð÷ is Agentive).
Note: (i) It will be observed that ÑðÁÿó in the first sentence has Fem. Sg. form because the Object ò¨îÃðð×ð is Fem. Sg. The subject (Ram) ÜðÙð, which is Masc. Sg., does not affect the Verb. ®ððÚðð, Ãðð÷Àÿ÷ and Ñðó in the other three sentences, similarly, agree with the Objects ®ððÐðð (Masc, Sg.) Òîâð (Masc. Pl), and µððÚð (Fem. Sg.). These forms cannot, of course, be called `Passive`, as far as Hindi is concerned, since the subject in each case acts and is not `acted upon` See:- (a) The forms of a Verb indicating the type of the character of the action etc. denoted by it are called Aspect. (b) Hindi Verbs have numerous `Aspects`, such as Terminate, Progressive, Iterative, Intensive, Effective, Inceptive etc. All the Aspects (i.e. Verb-forms denoting nature of action), except the Terminate, are made by combining the main Verb with various subsidiary Verbs. In their origin, in Sanskrit and Prakrit, they had the Passive Construction. If a Verb has two Objects, it agrees with the primary object (94-e) ÙðøüÐð÷ ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ Çð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü Çó `I gave two books to Ram`. (a) The Past Participle is formed by appending ¡ð to the root:
(b) However, the root ending in ¤ and ýá shorten their vowels before the -¡ð and, in the case of-ýá roots, a-Úð is inserted between the root and the-¡ð. Thus-
(d) The following are exceptional forms:-
196. These forms, when used as Verbs of the Past Tense, modify their -¡ð to ýá in the Feminine Singular, to — ýá in the Feminine Plural, and to — ¦ in the Masculine Plural. Thus :-
and There is, however, no modification due to Person. The Past Indicative forms of µðâð are:- With a Masculine Subject:- Singular Plural
With a Feminine Subject:-
Note: (i) The regular and preferable Feminine forms of ±ðÚðð, ¡ðÚðð etc. are ±ðÚðó, ¡ðýá, ±ðÚðóü, ¡ðÚðóü. They are frequently written as ±ðýá, ¡ðýá. ±ðýáü ¡ðýá ÷etc. Similarly, the regular Masc. Plurals of these forms ±ðÚð÷ and ¡ðÚð÷ are also written as ±ð¦ and ¡ð¦, èô¡ð makes èôýá, èôýáü and èô¦ (also written as èôÚð÷). èôãð÷ is now sub-standard. (ii) Past Participles which edn in — ýÚðð in the Masc. Sg., form their Fem. by changing this ýÚðð to — ýá (sg.) or — ýáü (Pl.). Thus, òâðÚðð makes âðó, âðóü (not òâðÚðó, òâðÚðóü as expected), òÇÚðð makes Çó, Çóü; ò¨îÚðð makes ¨îó, ¨îóü, òÑðÚðð makes Ñðó, Ñðóü etc. It is to be noted that a Past Participle, when used as a Verb of the Past, modifies its signification accordingly. ±ðÚðð as a Past Participle (Adjective) means `gone` but as a Verb `he went`. (a) The forms given in 196 (a) and (b) above have the Subjectival construction: the Verbs agree with the Subjects in Number and Gender. This, as a rule, is the case with all the Intransitive Verbs. With the Transitive Verbs, however, the Objectival construction is the rule. The Verb in such cases agrees with the Object in Gender and Number and the Subject is placed in the Oblique form with Ðð÷. See :- Ðð÷ is attached to the Subject of a Transitive Verb when it is used in the Past (Participle) form: âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ Òîâð ®ððÚðð `the boy ate the fruit`; But the Subject of an Intransitive Verb in the past has the direct form: âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ðÚðð `the boy came`; Exceptions:- A few Transitive Verbs like âððÐðð `to bring,» ØðõâðÐðð `to forget`, ×ðð÷âðÐðð `to speak`, do not take the Subject with Ðð÷; while with çðÙð»ðÐðð `to understand` and ×ð¨îÐðð `to chatter`, Ðð÷ is optional. See :- âðÀÿ¨îð ò¨îÃðð×ð âððÚðð `the boy brought the book`;
Note: (i) It will be observed that ÑðÁÿó in the first sentence has Fem. Sg. form because the Object ò¨îÃðð×ð is Fem. Sg. The subject (Ram) ÜðÙð, which is Masc. Sg., does not affect the Verb. ®ððÚðð, Ãðð÷Àÿ÷ and Ñðó in the other three sentences, similarly, agree with the Objects ®ððÐðð (Masc, Sg.) Òîâð (Masc. Pl), and µððÚð (Fem. Sg.). These forms cannot, of course, be called `Passive`, as far as Hindi is concerned, since the subject in each case acts and is not `acted upon` See: In their origin, in Sanskrit and Prakrit, they had the Passive Construction. If a Verb has two Objects, it agrees with the primary object (94-e) ÙðøüÐð÷ ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ Çð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü Çó `I gave two books to Ram`. There are a few exceptione to the above rule. The roots âðð `bring`, Øðõâð `forget`, çðÙð»ð `understand, realize`, ×ð¨î `chatter, talk idly`, ×ðð÷âð `speak`, âðÀÿ `fight`, quarrel`, ÀÜ `fear`, òÙðâð `meet` have the subjectival construction in the past inspite of being Transitive. However, âðð `bring` is, in fact, a compound Verb made of âð÷ `take` + ¡ð `come`; and since ¡ð is Intransitive, it affects the construction of âðð. A sentence like ãðè ò¨îÃðð×ð âððÚðð is to be constuured as ãðè ò¨îÃðð×ð âð÷ (¨îÜ) ¡ðÚðð `he came having taken the book`. See:- It is important to remember that, whether the main root is Transitive or Intransitive, a compound Verb admits of objectival construction (with a past participle) only it the Subsidiary is Transitive. Thus: In the compound verbs of this class, the main Verb has the absolutive form without ¨îÜ (243) which is identical with its root form, and remains unchanged. The subsidiary Verbs commonly used are as follows:- (a). Øðõâð `forget` is generally used as Compound Verb together with ¸ðð `go` which is Intransitive and, therefore, helps in retaining the subjectival construction. ÜðÙð Úðè ×ððÃð Øðõâð ±ðÚðð `Ram forgot this thing` is much more frequent than ÜðÙð Úðè ×ððÃð Øðõâðð. ÜðÙð Øðõâðð or Ùðøü Øðõâðð would, in fact, mean `Ram erred or I erred`, where Øðõâðð is Intransitive. See:- It is important to remember that, whether the main root is Transitive or Intransitive, a compound Verb admits of objectival construction (with a past participle) only it the Subsidiary is Transitive. Thus: ×ð¨î and ×ðð÷âð are used both as Transitive and as Intransitive. In ãðè ×ð¨îð `he chattered`, ×ð¨î is Intransitive, and in £çðÐð÷ ×ðèôÃð ¨ôî¶ ×ð¨îð `he talked a lot of non-sense`, it is Transitive. In ãðè ×ðð÷âðð `he spoke`, ×ðð÷âð is Intransitive, and in £çðÐð÷ »ðó¿ ×ðð÷âðð `he spoke lie`, it is Transitive. However, »ðõ¿ ×ðð÷âðð is also current. çðÙð»ð has both the construction: Ùðøü çðÙð»ðð, ÙðøüÐð÷ çðÙð»ðð `I thought or understood`. ÀÜ, âðÀÿ and òÙðâð are treated as Intransitive Verbs in Hindi. The `objects` of these Verbs attach çð÷ which signifies `from` or `with`:
âðÀÿ, however, is Transitive with a cognate object (165-c) £çðÐð÷ ¨îýá âðÀÿðýÚððü âðÀÿóü `he fought several battles`. Omission of Ðð÷ in the above Verbs may partly be due to dialectic influence. A Transitive Verb, whose object takes the case-sign ¨îð÷, has Neutral construction in the past indicative:
Exceptions:- Verbs requaring two objects never have the Neutral construction:
The Intransitive Verb ¶óü¨î `sneeze` and ®ððûçð `cough` have the Neutral construction in the Past Indicative: ¨îÙðâðð Ðð÷ ¶óü¨îð `Kamla sneezed`. ÙðøüÐð÷ ®ððûçðð `I coughed`. (Ùðøü ®ððûçðð is also correct). (a) The Indicative Past, as discussed above, invariably refers to a particular act done in the past. It is never used with reference to an act habitually or regularly done in the past, for which the habitual past is used. See:- ãðè ¸ðð Üèð Æðð «he was going` (going on progressive), Note:- The (simple) past is not use with reference to an act habitually or regularly done in the past: for this habitual past is use. See :- (e) Habitual past tense represents an act as habitually or regularly done in the past. ãðè çðÇð çðÃÚð ×ðð÷âðÃðð Æðð «He always spoke the truth`, The common forms noted above are, obviously, terminate:they represent a particular past action as a whole or as a fact, not as going on. For the progressive, please see:- (a) The above forms are terminate, not progressive: they do not represent the act as going on in the past. Their use as progressive (``Imperfect`` or ``Continuous``) forms is archaic or dialectic. (b) The progressive forms are made, as in the present (190) by replacing the Ãðð by Üèð:
The forms ¸ðð Üèð Æðð etc. etc. do not, in fact, represent the progressive aspect of ¸ððÃðð Æðð form which they are apparently made. The similarity is purely formal. ¸ðð Üèð Æðð is really the progressive aspect corresponding to ±ðÚðð | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
CHAPTER XXV | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The Indicative Future is formed as follows:- The root assumes a modified form by attaching — ¦ in the Second and Third person Singular, -¤û in the First person Singular, — ¦û in the First and Third person Plural, and ¡ð÷ in the Second person Plural. Thus µðâð is modified to - Singular Plural
These are really Subjective (Optative) forms. See:- (a) ¡ð¦ (third person sg.) represenst the action mainly as a desire, wish, command, requirement, purpose; but also as a condition (although not contrary to fact), a supposition, a possibility etc., almost always with an implied reference to future. This form may be called ``Optative``. (b) The Optative forms have already been noted in connection with the Indicative Future forms (203). The forms for ¡ð `come` would be:-
For the roots µðâð and èð÷, the forms would be:- Singular Plural Singular Plural
There is no modification due to Gender. To the root thus modified is appended a -
The Future Indicative forms of the root µðâð, thus, would be- With a Masculine subject — Singular Plural
Singular Plural
Note:- With the honorific pronoun ¡ðÑð, Third Person Plural forms are used -
(a) Roots ending in — ýá or — ¤ shorten these vowels before attaching — ¦, — ¦û, — ¤û and — ¡ð÷ [50 — (a) and (b)]. Thus:-
(b) The roots Ç÷ `give` and âð÷ `take` drop their vowel (-¦) before attaching — ¦, — ¦û, — ¤û and — ¡ð÷.
(c)The root èð÷ `be` does not attach — ¦ or — ¦û. But ¤û (First person Sg.) and — ¡ð÷ (Second Person Pl.) are attached as usual. In the First and Third person Plural, èð÷ is nasalized. The forms are èð÷±ðð (II and III Sg.), èð÷ü±ð÷ (I and III Pl.) èð÷¤û±ðð (I Sg.) and èð÷¡ð÷±ð÷ (II Pl.) (d) It is common to write ¡ðÚð±ðð, ¸ððÚð±ðð or ¡ðãð÷±ðð, ¸ððãð÷±ðð for ¡ð¦±ðð, ¸ðð¦±ðð (he will come, he wil go); òÑðÚð÷±ðð, ò¸ðÚð÷±ðð etc., for òÑð¦±ðð, ò¸ð¦±ðð etc.; ¡ðÚðû±ð÷, ¸ððãð÷ü±ð÷ for ¡ð¦û±ð| ¸ðð¦û±ð÷ etc; òÑðÚðû±ð÷, ò¸ðÚðû±ð÷ for òÑð¦û±ð÷, ò¸ð¦û±ð÷ etc. But the regular, and therefore preferable, forms are those with-¦ and-¦û (¡ð¦±ðð, ¡ð¦û±ð÷ etc.). èð÷ãð÷±ðð, (for èð÷±ðð), èð÷ãð÷ü±ð÷ (for èð÷ü±ð÷), èõü±ðð (for èð÷¤û±ðð) and èð÷±ð÷ (for èð÷¡ð÷±ð÷) are dialectical or colloquial and should be discarded. (e) In Fem. Plural, -±ðó should never be nasalized. ¸ðð¦û±ðó is the correct form, not ¸ðð¦û±ðóü. (f) With the honorific Pronoun ¡ðÑð, Third Person plural forms are used ¡ðÑð ¸ðð¦û±ð÷ (Masc.) ¡ðÑð ¸ðð¦û±ðó (Fem.). An extra-polite form is obta ned by appending — ±ðð to the honorific forms of the Imperative, ¸ððý¦ etc. (180-b). Thus ¡ðÑð ¸ððý¦±ðð, µðòâð¦±ðð etc. This form is used for boththe genders. In the Active Voice, the Indicative Future has onlythe subjectival construction: the Verb always agrees with the subject in Number, Gender and Person. For Passive and Impersonal forms of Future, For Progressive Future, see:- (a) ÜèÐðð as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: ãðè ¸ðð Üè ð èø `he is going`, ãðè ¸ððÃðð ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps going (habitually), ãðè ×ðø¿ð ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps sitting`, ãðè ¨ ð÷¾ ÑðèÐð÷ ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps wearing a coat, (b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect. It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods (¸ððÃðð Üè÷±ðð, µðâðÃðð Üèð, ×ðø¿÷ Üè÷, ÑðèÐð÷ Üèð èð÷Ãðð etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary ÜèÐðð is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past (¸ðð Üèð èø — ¸ðð Üèð Æðð) or in the Subjective forms ¡ðÃðð èð÷, ¡ðÃðð èð÷Ãðð, ¡ðÃðð èð÷±ðð, ¡ð Üèð èð÷, ¡ð Üèð èð÷Ãðð, ¡ð Üèð èð÷±ðð. In fact, ¡ð Üèð is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound ¡ð + ÜèÐðð, and as equivalent to ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð, ¸ððÃðð èô¡ð etc. (241). ãðè ¸ððÃðð èø (¸ðð Üèð èø) Present Indicative, The Üèð forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms (¸ððÃðð èø etc.). | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
CHAPTER XXVI | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The Present Perfect represents a completed act, the effect of which is still present. It is, in fact, a tense of the past; but it brings a past act into relation with the present. The person or the thing referred to by the Verb in the Present Perfect ``must be living or still existing and thus related tothe present``. The Present Perfect ``can refer to the remote past if the present is not excluded by the statement``. ``It distinguishes sharply between present and past`` and can never be used for anything wholly past. See:- The Present Perfect is really a past tense, but the past act that it represents is always related to the present. It cannot refer to an act which is wholly past and gone. Thus, we can say âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ðÚðð èø `the boy has come` only if the boy is still here, whenever he may have come. But we cannot say âðÀÿ¨îð ¨îâð ¡ðÚðð èø ¡ðøÜ ¡ð¸ð µðâðð ±ðÚðð `the boy ``has come`` yesterday and went to-day` because the boy`s coming can no longer be related to the present: he is gone. Similarly, we can say ØððÜÃð Ùð÷ü ¡äðð÷¨î ¸ðøçð÷ ÙðèðÐð Üð¸ðð èô¦ èøü `there have been great kings like Ashok in India` because India exists and we can relate its past to its present. We cannot, however, say µðÐͱðôÑÃð Ðð÷ Ñðð¾òâðÑðôëð ¨îð÷ Üð¸ðÏððÐðó ×ðÐððÚðð èø `Chandragupta ``has made`` Pataliputra his capital`, because neither Chandragupta nor Pataliputra now exists. It is, therefore, not correct to call this tense `Recent Past` (¡ðçðÐÐð ØðõÃð) as has been done by many grammarians. The present perfect has nothing whatever to do with the recentness or remoteness of a past action. The Present Perfect is made by combining the past participle of the root with the present forms of the root èø-èð÷ `be` as given in 187. (The past participle forms are given in 195). As in the Present Indicative (188), the past participle is affected by Number and Gender, while the èø — èð÷ forms are affected by Person and Number. The Present Perfect forms of the root µðâð, thus, are:- with a Masculine subject — Singular Plural
Singular Plural
The above forms have subjectival construction: the root µðâð is Intransitive. With a Transitive Verb, however, as in the case of the simple past (98), the objectival construction is the rule. The past participle is then made to agree with the object in Number and Gender while the èø forms agree with the Person and Number of the object. The subject is, of course, placed in the oblique case with Ðð÷ (96).
Note:- (i) It will be observed that the past participles ÑðÁÿó, ®ððÚðð, òâð®ð÷ and Ãðð÷Àÿó agree, as regards Gender and Number, with the objects
and respectively. The forms èø and èøü agree with the same objects in Number and Person (third throughout). (ii)With a Pronoun as the object or object not expressed, the objectival construction is not permissible, since the Pronouns must have a ¨îð÷ (or ¦) form and, therefore, the Verb must be in the neutral construction (200). As in the case of Simple Past (200), whenever the object has a ¨îð÷, the Present Perfect Verb must be in the neutral construction (for ¨îð÷, see :- The Object of a Verb in the neutral Construction (174 (c)]; ÜðÙð Ðð÷ âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ Ç÷®ðð `Ram saw the boy`,
Exception: Verbs having two objects are never put in the neutral ÙðøüÐð÷ £çð÷ Çð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü Çó èøü `I have given him two books`. (Objectival Construction). For Progressive forms, See:- (a) ÜèÐðð as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: ãðè ¸ðð Üè ð èø `he is going`, ãðè ¸ððÃðð ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps going (habitually), ãðè ×ðø¿ð ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps sitting`, ãðè ¨ ð÷¾ ÑðèÐð÷ ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps wearing a coat, (b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect. It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods (¸ððÃðð Üè÷±ðð, µðâðÃðð Üèð, ×ðø¿÷ Üè÷, ÑðèÐð÷ Üèð èð÷Ãðð etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary ÜèÐðð is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past (¸ðð Üèð èø — ¸ðð Üèð Æðð) or in the Subjective forms ¡ðÃðð èð÷, ¡ðÃðð èð÷Ãðð, ¡ðÃðð èð÷±ðð, ¡ð Üèð èð÷, ¡ð Üèð èð÷Ãðð, ¡ð Üèð èð÷±ðð. In fact, ¡ð Üèð is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound ¡ð + ÜèÐðð, and as equivalent to ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð, ¸ððÃðð èô¡ð etc. (241). ãðè ¸ððÃðð èø (¸ðð Üèð èø) Present Indicative, The Üèð forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms (¸ððÃðð èø etc.). 263. Of the remaining Moods and Tenses, the Imperative has no progressive form; the Indicative Past has no progressive form — except the rare | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
CHAPTER XXVII | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The Habitual Past represents an action as habitually or regularly done in the past. It does not usually refer to a particular act of the past, nor to an act as going on in the past. It is not correct to call this tense ``Past Imperfect`` or ``Progressive Past``, as has been done by almost all the grammarians. Modern Hindi usage does not warrant this nomenclature. See below (a) The above forms are terminate, not progressive: they do not represent the act as going on in the past. Their use as progressive (``Imperfect`` or ``Continuous``) forms is archaic or dialectic. (b) The progressive forms are made, as in the present (190) by replacing the Ãðð by Üèð:
The Verbs of the two senternces are not inter-changeable. The Habitual Past is formed by combining
with the present participle forms of the Verb (Which, of course, are affected by the Number and Gender of the subject, see 196. These forms, when used as Verbs of the Past Tense, modify their -¡ð to ýá in the Feminine Singular, to — ýá in the Feminine Plural, and to — ¦ in the Masculine Plural. Thus :-
and There is, however, no modification due to Person. The Past Indicative forms of µðâð are:- With a Masculine Subject:- Singular Plural
With a Feminine Subject:-
) The Habitual Passt forms are not affected by Person. The forms of the root ¸ðð `go` will, thus, be:- with a Masculine Subject: Singular Plural
Singular Plural
A special form of the Habitual Past is obtained by omitting the auxiliaries Æðð, Æð÷, Æðó, Æðóü. It is used almost exclusively in narrating a repeated act of the past. èÙð âðð÷±ð çð×ð÷Ü÷ èó ãðèðü ¸ððÃð÷ Úðð ¸ððÚðð ¨îÜÃð÷ ¡ðøÜ äððÙð ¨îð÷ âððø¾Ãð÷ Úðð âððø¾ð ¨îÜÃð÷ `we would (we used to) go there every morning and return in the evening.` This form may be called `Frequentative` or `Repetitive` Past. Note:- In the Fem. Pl. of the Frequentative Past, the present participle has a — Ãðóü instead of the usual — Ãðó: ãð÷ ¸ððÃðóü `they (Fem,) would go`. The `Frequentative` forms are not tobe confused with the contingent forms (233) with which they are apparently identical. (a) The above forms are terminate, not progressive: they do not represent the act as going on in the past. Their use as progressive (``Imperfect`` or ``Continuous``) forms is archaic or dialectic. (b) The progressive forms are made, as in the present (190) by replacing the Ãðð by Üèð:
The forms ¸ðð Üèð Æðð etc. etc. do not, in fact, represent the progressive aspect of ¸ððÃðð Æðð form which they are apparently made. The similarity is purely formal. ¸ðð Üèð Æðð is really the progressive aspect corresponding to ±ðÚðð (a) The Past Habitual (including the ``Frequentative``) is restricted to the present (191-92) with the help of Ððèóü and ©Úðð. The Auxiliaries Æðó, Æð÷, Æðóü however, are not omitted:
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CHAPTER XXVIII | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The Past Perfect represents ``a past action or state as completed at or before a certain past time``. It is not ``remote past``, as is usually supposed. It is formed by combining Æðð, Æðó, Æðóü with the past participle forms (195) of the main Verb:
There is no modificatin due to Peson. The honorific form has Third Person Plural: ¡ðÑð ±ð¦ Æð÷ (±ðýá Æðóü). (a) As in the case of the Simple Past (198), the Transitive Verbs have the objectival construction in the Past Perfect; the Verb agrees with the object in Gender and Number, and the subject is placed in the oblique form with Ðð÷:
(b) The above rule is subject to the same exceptions as the rule regarding the Simple Past (199):
(c) In the case of the Verbs having two objects, the Verb agrees with the primary object [ see Every Primary (Animate or Inanimate) Object of a verb having two Objects [See: (c) Some Verbs have two Objects: `I gave him two books` therefore, is the ``Dorect``, or the ``primary`` Object, and him is the ``Indirect`` or the ``Secondary`` Object. (In most of such cases, the Primary Object answers the question ``what?``, and the Secondary Object answers `Whom?`). ]. ÙðøÐð÷ ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ³ðð÷Àÿð òÇÚðð `I gave Ram a horse`; and See If a Verb has two Objects, it agrees with the primary object (94-e) ÙðøüÐð÷ ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ Çð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü Çó `I gave two books to Ram`.)
(a) But a Transitive Verb has the neutral construction if its object takes the case-sign- ¨îð÷ (cf. 200).
Exceptionally, a few Intransitive Verbs also (201) have the neutral construction:
Note:- Verbs taking two objects never have the neutral construction.
The Past Perfect, like the simple past (202) refers to a particular act. The act. must have been completed at a past time: it is immaterial whether it was completed a moment ago or centuries ago. We can say ÜðÙð ¡Øðó Úðèðü ¡ðÚðð Æðð `Ram had just now come here`, as well as,
(a) ÜèÐðð as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: ãðè ¸ðð Üè ð èø `he is going`, ãðè ¸ððÃðð ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps going (habitually), ãðè ×ðø¿ð ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps sitting`, ãðè ¨ ð÷¾ ÑðèÐð÷ ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps wearing a coat, (b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect. It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods (¸ððÃðð Üè÷±ðð, µðâðÃðð Üèð, ×ðø¿÷ Üè÷, ÑðèÐð÷ Üèð èð÷Ãðð etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary ÜèÐðð is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past (¸ðð Üèð èø — ¸ðð Üèð Æðð) or in the Subjective forms ¡ðÃðð èð÷, ¡ðÃðð èð÷Ãðð, ¡ðÃðð èð÷±ðð, ¡ð Üèð èð÷, ¡ð Üèð èð÷Ãðð, ¡ð Üèð èð÷±ðð. In fact, ¡ð Üèð is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound ¡ð + ÜèÐðð, and as equivalent to ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð, ¸ððÃðð èô¡ð etc. (241). ãðè ¸ððÃðð èø (¸ðð Üèð èø) Present Indicative, The Üèð forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms (¸ððÃðð èø etc.). and for Passive and Impersonal Voice, The various terminate forms of the Indicative Mood (in the active voice), discussed in Chapters III-VIII may be summarized as Forms made with the Present Participle:-
Forms made with — ±ðð (attached to the Subjunctive forms):-
The following points may be noted:- Note — Ãðð (present participle) and — ¡ð (past participle) as well as — ±ðð forms are affected by Gender and Number:-
But Fem. Pl is — Ãðóü and ýá, if there is no auxiliary: µðâðÃðó (Negative Present or Frequentative Past), µðâðóü (Simple Past).
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CHAPTER XXIX | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The Subjunctive mood, as already stated (172-c), is a form of Verb, which represents the action not as a reality, but as a wish, hope, command requirement, possibility, probability, presumption, condition, etc. It represents in short ``the action or state as a conception of the mond rather than a reality`` (Cwme). (a) In Hindi, the Subjunctive has eight different forms, that may be divided into three groups representing three tenses, present, past and future. But it must be remembered that the tenses of this mood do not define the time (of the occurrence of an action) as clearly as do the tenses of the Indicative. In accordance with their main signfications, the eight forms may be divided into four groups — (1) those expressing (mainly) wish, desire, requirement, (2) those expressing possibility, (3) those expressing probability or presumed certainty, and (4) those referring to a condition which is contrary to fact. But it muxt again be remembered that the meanings of the four groups are not mutually exclusive: they often overlap each other. The eight forms of the root ¡ð `come` grouped according to the Tenses are as follows:-
According to their main significations, they may be grouped as follows:-
(Contrary to fact) These forms are, of course, Terminate and Active. The corresponding progressive forms of ¡ðÃðð èð÷, ¡ðÃðð èð÷±ðð and ¡ðÃðð èð÷Ãðð can be made by substituting Üèð for — Ãðð. For Passive and Impersonal Voices, and for other progressive forms, see: (a) ÜèÐðð as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: ãðè ¸ðð Üè ð èø `he is going`, ãðè ¸ððÃðð ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps going (habitually), ãðè ×ðø¿ð ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps sitting`, ãðè ¨ ð÷¾ ÑðèÐð÷ ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps wearing a coat, (b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect. It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods (¸ððÃðð Üè÷±ðð, µðâðÃðð Üèð, ×ðø¿÷ Üè÷, ÑðèÐð÷ Üèð èð÷Ãðð etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary ÜèÐðð is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past (¸ðð Üèð èø — ¸ðð Üèð Æðð) or in the Subjective forms ¡ðÃðð èð÷, ¡ðÃðð èð÷Ãðð, ¡ðÃðð èð÷±ðð, ¡ð Üèð èð÷, ¡ð Üèð èð÷Ãðð, ¡ð Üèð èð÷±ðð. In fact, ¡ð Üèð is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound ¡ð + ÜèÐðð, and as equivalent to ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð, ¸ððÃðð èô¡ð etc. (241). ãðè ¸ððÃðð èø (¸ðð Üèð èø) Present Indicative, The Üèð forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms (¸ððÃðð èø etc.). The forms as given above are in the subjectival construction for a masculine singular subject in the third person. The rest will be indicated below under each. ¡ð¦ (Optative) (a) ¡ð¦ (third person sg.) represenst the action mainly as a desire, wish, command, requirement, purpose; but also as a condition (although not contrary to fact), a supposition, a possibility etc., almost always with an implied reference to future. This form may be called ``Optative``. (b) The Optative forms have already been noted in connection with the Indicative Future forms (203). The forms for ¡ð `come` would be:-
For the roots µðâð and èð÷, the forms would be:- Singular Plural Singular Plural
There is no modification due to Gender. The following sentences will illustrate the usage:
Note: (i) It will be observed that all the sentences, except the last two, have an implied reference to Future. The last but one makes a general statement with no reference to time. In the last sentences, the Verb èó expresses a supposed state existing at present. (ii) It will also be noticed that the Optative Verb in the third sentence âðð¦ has the force of an Imperative. But being an indirect command, it cannot be classed as imperative which is the mood of direct command or request. For the same reason, the Imperative can have no form for the first person. The forms mentioned bymost of the grammarians as first and third person ``Imperative`` are identical with the Optative forms given above. But they cannot be regarded as Imperative. It will be observed that the second peson Plural form (µðâðð÷ etc.) is identical in the two moods. Notice, however, in the fifth sentence the clear difference between the meaning of an Imperative secon person plural ®ðð¡ð÷ `eat, take` and that of an Optative second person, (¡µ¶÷ÿ) èð÷ ¸ðð¡ð÷! `so that you get well`. With the honorific pronoun, the Optatives may denote polite request or suggestion: ¡ðÑð ãðèðü Ðð ¸ðð¦û `you had better not go there` (180-a). (iv) The forms ¡ðÚð÷ or ¡ðãð÷ (for ¡ðÚð÷), ¡ðãð÷ü (for ¡ð¦û), ¸ððÚð, ¸ððãð÷ (for ¸ðð¦), ¸ððÚðû, ¸ððãð÷ (for ¸ðð¦û), èð÷ãð÷, èð÷ãð÷ü (for èð÷,èð÷ü) etc. should be discarded as archaic. The only correct forms are those with — ¦-¦û, (Cf.205-d). The above forms are in the subjectival construction. The Obtative does not have the objectival construction. For Passive and Impersonal Voice. For Progressive forms, see (a) ÜèÐðð as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: ãðè ¸ðð Üè ð èø `he is going`, ãðè ¸ððÃðð ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps going (habitually), ãðè ×ðø¿ð ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps sitting`, ãðè ¨ ð÷¾ ÑðèÐð÷ ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps wearing a coat, (b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect. It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods (¸ððÃðð Üè÷±ðð, µðâðÃðð Üèð, ×ðø¿÷ Üè÷, ÑðèÐð÷ Üèð èð÷Ãðð etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary ÜèÐðð is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past (¸ðð Üèð èø — ¸ðð Üèð Æðð) or in the Subjective forms ¡ðÃðð èð÷, ¡ðÃðð èð÷Ãðð, ¡ðÃðð èð÷±ðð, ¡ð Üèð èð÷, ¡ð Üèð èð÷Ãðð, ¡ð Üèð èð÷±ðð. In fact, ¡ð Üèð is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound ¡ð + ÜèÐðð, and as equivalent to ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð, ¸ððÃðð èô¡ð etc. (241). ãðè ¸ððÃðð èø (¸ðð Üèð èø) Present Indicative, The Üèð forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms (¸ððÃðð èø etc.). B. ¡ðÃðð èð÷, ¡ðÚðð èð÷ (Potential) (a) These forms denote, mainly, possibility of the occurrece of an action with reference to the present and the past:
They may also express wish and desire, but not command, erquierment and purpose. Condition and supposition can be expressed by them These forms may be called present and past `potential`. (b) The potential forms are made by combining the present and the past participles of the main Verb with the forms of èð÷ given above. Thus:- Singular Plural
Similarly, Ùðøü ¡ðÚðð èð÷¤ û etc. For changing into Feminie, — Ãðð, and — ¡ð of the participles are replaced by — Ãðó and -ýá: Ùðøü ¡ðÃðó èð÷¤û etc. The Progressive (present forms can be made by substituting Üèð for Ãðð: ãðè ¡ð Üèð èð÷. The following sentences will illustrate the usage:-
(b) The present, especially the Progressive forms, may, if the context so indicates, refer to (immediate) future:-
(c) The present Potential has only the subjectival construction. The past Potential has the objectival construction if the Verb is Transitive: see the second and the sixth sentences under (a) above. Where the object is in the oblique form, the past Potential has the neutral construction: see the third sentence under (a) above. For Passive and Impersonal forms, In most of the grammars, the Optative form has been mentioned as the future form of the Potential and the Optative mood completely ignored, its function having been assigned to the Imperative. This is hardly justifiable. See (ii) It will also be noticed that the Optative Verb in the third sentence âðð¦ has the force of an Imperative. But being an indirect command, it cannot be classed as imperative which is the mood of direct command or request. For the same reason, the Imperative can have no form for the first person. The forms mentioned bymost of the grammarians as first and third person ``Imperative`` are identical with the Optative forms given above. But they cannot be regarded as Imperative. It will be observed that the second peson Plural form (µðâðð÷ etc.) is identical in the two moods. Notice, however, in the fifth sentence the clear difference between the meaning of an Imperative secon person plural ®ðð¡ð÷ `eat, take` and that of an Optative second person, (¡µ¶÷ÿ) èð÷ ¸ðð¡ð÷! `so that you get well`. ¡ðÃðð èð÷±ðð, ¡ðÚðð èð÷±ðð (Presumptive) (a) These forms express probability and presumed or inferred certainty. They may be called `Presumptive`. The names `Doubtful Present` and `Doubtful Past` for these forms, adopted by some grammarians, are misleading. The forms seldom denote `doubt`. The presumptive forms are made by combining the present or the past participle forms of the main Verb with the future forms of èð÷. The participles are, of course, modified to agree with the subject in Number and Gender: Ùðøü ¡ðÃðð èð÷¤ü±ðð, èÙð ¡ðÃð÷ èð÷ü±ð÷, Ùðøü ¡ðÚðð èð÷¤û±ðð, èÙð ¡ð¦ èð÷ü±ð÷, etc. The present progressive forms, as usual, can be made by substituting Üèð for — Ãðð: ãðè ¡ð Üèð èð÷±ðð. (a) The following sentences illustrate the usage:-
The two presumptive forms can be used with reference to any time present, past or future, as required by the context:
For Passive and Impersonal Voice, ¡ðÃðð, ¡ðÃðð èð÷Ãðð, ¸ððÃðð èð÷Ãðð (Contingent) These forms denote, mainly, a condition which is contrary to fact. They may also express a wish which cannot be fulfilled. Theymay be called `Contingent`. The first two forms ¡ðÃðð and ¡ðÃðð èð÷Ãðð may refer to the present, the past or the future. The last (¡ðÚðð èð÷Ãðð) refers to the past. D. ¡ðÃðð, ¡ðÃðð èð÷Ãðð, ¸ððÃðð èð÷Ãðð (Contingent) These forms denote, mainly, a condition which is contrary to fact. They may also express a wish which cannot be fulfilled. They may be called `Contingent`. The first two forms ¡ðÃðð and ¡ðÃðð èð÷Ãðð may refer to the present, the past of the future. The last (¡ðÚðð èð÷Ãðð) refers to the past. The first form ¡ðÃðð is identical with a present participle.
(b) The fourth sentence is in the objectival construction: the Verb is Transitive and the subject has a Ðð÷. The Last sentence is in the neutral construction, the object having the oblique form. For Passive and Impersonal Voice, | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
CHAPTER XXX | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The Infinitive is that form of a Verb which expresses simply the notion of the Verb without predicating it of any subject. In Hindi, it is formed by adding Ððð to the bare root and is used both as a Noun and as an Adjective. (a) When used as a Noun (usually Abstract), the Infinitive is treated like an ordinary Noun ending in ¡ð (Masc.). But, being Abstract, it is not used in the plural:
(b) The Infinitive, in spite of being a Noun, retains its verbal character and can, therefore, take an Object:
The abstract idea represented by an Infinitive being ``inanimate``, It is not usual to attach ¨îð÷ when the Infinitive is used as an object. It does, however, attach ¨îð÷ for signifying ``for the purpose of`` or ``with a view to``. THe ¨îð÷ is occasionally replaced by ¨÷î òâðÚð÷ (see: — a.The following are used with ¨÷î (or — Ü÷) :- and both ¨îð÷and ¨÷î òâðÚð÷ may be omitted when the Infinitive is followed by the Verb ¡ð `come` and ¸ðð `go`
¡ðÐðð, ÑðóÐðð etc. in such sentences may be regarded as the objects of µððè See :- µððèÐðð `to want` retains its meaning.. (ii) An Infinitive attaches ¨îð÷ when followed by the Verbs èð÷ and Æðð and denotes ``about to....``.
238. The Infinitive is used as an Adjective only in combination with a few Verbs denoting obligation, necessity, requirement, compulsion etc. èð÷, Æðð, ÑðÀÿð and µððòè¦ are the Verbs most frequently used in this sense. The subject in such cases has ¨îð÷ (or ¦ in Pronouns 97-a), and the Infinitive has Ððð, Ððó or Ðð÷, according as the object is Masc. sg. or Masc. Pl.:
Note: (1) It is not uncommon to say ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü âððÐðð èø, ×ððÃð÷ ¨îÜÐðð µððòè¦ etc. for ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü âððÐðó èøü, ×ððÃð÷ü ¨îÜÐðó µððòè¦ etc. The latter forms are preferable. See :- However, when an Infinitive is Transitive, it is used as an Adjective to its object and changes its ending -Ððð to-Ððó or — ne according as the object is Feminine (sg. or pl.) or Masculine pl. The subsidiaries also agree with the object in Number and Gender: âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ Çãðð ÑðóÐðó ÑðÀÿ÷±ðó `the boy will have to take medicine`, Note: It is not correct to say ×ðµµð÷ ¨îð÷ Çãðð ÑðóÐðó ÑðÀÿó or Ùðô»ð÷ ÃðóÐð Ñðëð òâð®ðÐðð Æðð as is sometimes done on the analogy of Intransitive Infinitives (¸ððÐðð ÑðÀÿ÷±ðð, ¸ððÐðð Æðð etc. which are Nouns. (c)µððòè¦ `is wanted` or `ought to be.....` is a true passive It can be combined with a Noun in the first sense (`is wanted`) and with an Infinitive (noun, if Intransitive and Adjective, if ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü µððòè¦ `Ram wants books` (literally, books are wanted by (for) Ram)», ÃðôÙè÷ü ©Úðð µððòè¦ `what do you want? (What is wanted by you ?), Note: (i) ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ ÑðÁÿÐðð µððòè¦ is as incorrect as Çãðð ÑðóÐðð ÑðÀÿð. However, µððòè¦ does not modify (asÑðÁÿÐðð and èð÷Ððð do). µððòè¦û as a plural of µððòè¦ (¡ðÑð¨îð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü ÑðÁÿÐðó µððòè¦û) is occasionally met with, but had better be doscarded An Infinitive having ¨îð and combined with Ððèóü denotes ``not willing to.....``, ``not ready to.....``. The Finite Verb (èø) in such cases is omitted:
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Participles are verbal adjectives qualifying noun (or pronoun) but retaining some properties of verbs. Hindi has two kinds of Participles, Present and Past. (a) Formation of Present and Past Participles has already been explained in 185 and 195:
etc. are Present Participles.
etc. are Past Participles. Both the Participles are affected by the Gender, the Number, and the Case of the Nouns or Pronouns which they qualify. µðâðÃðð, µðâðð are Masc. sg., µðâðÃð, µðâð÷; Masc. pl., µðâðÃðó and µðâðó Fem. sg. or pl. The oblique forms for Masc. sg. and pl. is also µðâðÃð, µðâð÷; Fem. forms remain unchanged in the oblique. (a) The Present Participle can be used like an ordinary Adjective:
Occasionally, however, (for the ske of clarity) a èô¡ð, èôýá or èô¦ Òõîâðð÷ü ¨îð÷ ÙðÃð Ãðð÷Àÿð÷ etc.
When a Present Participle is used as part of the Predicate, it has an adverbial sense, and consequently the oblique form:
With èó, a Present Participle (oblique) denotes ``immediately after``, ``as soon as``: A Present Participle, like other Adjectives, can be used also as a Noun, in which case it is declined like an -¡ð Noun (90) :
(a) A Past Participle can be used as an ordinary Adjective with or without èô¡ð, èôýá, èô¦:
(b) It can be used, like a Present Participle, as a Noun:
The adverbial use of a Past Participle is similar to that of a Present Participle.
±ð¦ ò×ðÐðð or (ò×ðÐðð ±ð¦), ÑðÁÿ÷ ò×ðÐðð or (ò×ðÐðð ÑðÁÿ÷) etc. denote `without going (having gone)», `without reading (having read)», when ò×ðÐðð is a Preposition (or Post-Position). See:- The Post-positions ÙððÜ÷, ò×ðÐðð and òçðãðð (Úð) are sometimes used, for the sake of emphasis, before the Noun which they govern:-
The Verb ¨îÜ itself forms its Absolutive by appending ¨÷î: ¨îܨ÷î `having done`. Note: (i) The Absolutive forms should always be written as two separate words: ¸ðð ¨îÜ, ®ðð ¨îÜ, ÑðÁÿ ¨îÜ, etc., not as ¸ðð¨îÜ, ®ðð¨îÜ, ÑðÁÿ¨îÜ etc. But ¨îܨ÷î may be writtern as one word. ¸ðð ¨îܨ÷î, ®ðð ¨îܨ÷î are archaic and should be discarded, ¸ðð¨÷î, ®ðð¨÷î are similarly to be avoided, ¡ðÐð ¨îÜ for ¡ð ¨îÜ is dialectic and should similarly be avoided. Pairs of allied Verbs can form a `Compound Absolutive:
244. (a) The Absolutive is generally adverbial in nature. As its name suggests, it is not affected by the gender, number or case of the subject or of the object. It has various significations :
(b) The following special uses may be noted:
For Passive and Impersonal forms, (a) Amongst Participles may be included the ãððâðð forms. These also are made by appending ãððâðð to the Oblique Infinitive forms, and are adjectival in nature, denoting ``one who does``:
When used predicative words, they may imply futurity:
These, of course, are not Participles, but simple Adjectives. Being Adjectives, they are affected by Number and Gender of the Noun whcih they qualify (-ãððâðð, — ãððâðó, — ãððâð÷), or can be used as Nouns themselves (-ãððâðð÷ü ¨îð÷ etc.). -ãððâð, a variant of — ãððâðð is attached to place-names for forming certain surnames, etc.:
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(a) As stated earlier (166), most of the Hindi Verbs may, by slightly modifying their forms, signify Causation of the action etc. denoted by them.:
Since ``causing something tobe done`` is an action which must be directed towards somebody, all Causative Verbs are invariably Transitive. The Causatives are made by adding an — ¡ð either to the bare root or to its modified form (249_. 247. (a) Many Verbs have an additional Causal form, usually called ``the Second Causal`` which is made by adding — ãðð to the bare root or to its modified form.
(b) It must, however, be remembered that the second causal form is restricted to such verbs whose first causals denote real activity on the part of their `doer`, not merely `getting something done.` Thus, the first causal of ÑðÁÿÐðð `to study, to learn` is ÑðÁÿðÐðð `to teach` which is a real activity on the part of the teacher, not merely `making (the student) learn` (which can be done by anybody who is able to persuade or frighten the students to learn!). This verb, therefore may form a second causal, ÑðÁÿãððÐðð which would mean `to get a student taught (by a teacher)». Similarly, the first causal of ò±ðÜÐðð `to fall` is ò±ðÜðÐðð `to fell`, which denotes an activity on the part of the person (a labourer etc.) who fells (a tree etc.), and not merely ``directing or presuading (a tree etc.) ``to fall``. This, accordingly, can have a second causal ò±ðÜãððÐðð which would mean ``to get (a tree etc.) felled (by a labourer etc.)»«. On the other hand, in the case of a root like ¨îÜÐðð `to do`, the first causal `¨îÜðÐðð` to get done` does not denote an activity on the part of the subject, but merely an order or a direction to somebody (a servant etc.) to do something. This verb, therefore, cannot have a second causal. Its second causal form ¨îÜãððÐðð is (unfortunately) in existence, but is identical in meaning with the first causal ¨îÜðÐðð. Many such ``false`` second causals are in common use. They have, in fact, been formed on the analogy of ``true`` second causals (like ÑðÁÿãððÐðð, ò±ðÜãððÐðð etc.), and should be treated as mere alternative forms (which had better be discarded) of the first causals. Under 249, all the ``false`` causals have been given in brackets. There are also some ``false`` first causals. These verbs, which look like the first causals of certain simple verbs are simple verbs themselves; while what look like the original verbs, are their passive forms; thus ¨îð¾Ððð `to cut ` looks like the first causal of ¨î¾ðÐðð. `to be cut` (and has been mentioned as such by almost all the grammarians!) But, as the meaning clearly indicates, ¨î¾Ððð is the passive form of ¨îð¾Ððð, and not its ``root.`` ¨îð¾Ððð consequently cannot be called a causative. ¨î¾ðÐðð, `to get (something) cut is the first causal of ¨îð¾Ððð `to cut` not the second causal of ¨î¾Ððð as is commonly supposed. Verbs of the nature ¨î¾Ððð which have a passive meaning without having the normal passive formation may be called (from the point of view of Hindi), `original passives.` They are always intransitive. Some of the frequently used original passives are-
For further particulars, The first causal forms are made by appending an-¡ð to the root which, in some cases, is slightly modified. The second causal is formed by appending -ãððto the root, or to its modified form. The modification fo the root is similar in both the cases. Roots ending in a consonant and having the first vowel short remain unchanged. The second causal form given below in bracket is ``false`` and may be regarded as identical with the first causal (248). Simple 1st Causal 2nd Causal
If the first vowel of a root is long, it changes to the corresponding short. ¦ and ¡ð÷ change to ý and £ respectively. But ¦÷ and ¡ðø remain unchanged:
Note:- òÇ®ðâððÐðð for òÇ®ððÐðð and òçð®ðâððÐðð for òçð®ððÐðð are Colloquial. The — âðð forms should be restricted to the roots ending in a vowel [See (c) below.] (ii) ×ðð÷âðÐðð changes it meaning in the causal form. ×ðôâððÐðð `to call` does not have a causal relationwith ×ðð÷âðÐðð `to speak`. The latter, however, has the second causal form ×ðôâðãððÐðð meaning `to cause to speak`. The root ×ðø¿Ððð `to sit` has five forms for the first causal: ×ðø¿ðÐðð ò×ð¿ðÐðð, ò×ð¿âððÐðð, and ×ðø¿ðâðÐðð of which only the first two are acceptable. Roots ending in a long vowel shorten the same and append a-âðð instead of an — ¡ð in the first Causal. The second Causal, consequently, adds a — âðãðð instead of a ãðð and ¦ and ¡ð÷ change to ý and £. In the following list, `False` second causals are given in brackets.
(ii) âð÷Ððð `to take` has the exceptional form òâðãððÐðð. (iii) ×ðð÷Ððð `to sow` has the exceptional form ×ðô¡ðÐðð or ×ðôãððÐðð. ×ðð÷¡ðÐðð is dialectical. (b) The following forms may be noted:- Active Causal Passive
¨îèðÐðð the Causal of ¨îèÐðð `to say`, is passive and means `to be called `. ¨îèâððÐðð is thealternative form which had better be restricted to mean `to cause to tell `. (a) As mentioned above, an Intransitive Verb becomes Transitive in the first Causal: ×ðµµðð çðð÷Ãðð èø `the child sleeps`, Ðððø¨îÜðÐðó ×ðµµð÷ ¨îð÷ çðôâððÃðó èø `the maid-servant puts the child to sleep`. The original Subject (×ðµµðð etc.) assumes the role of the Object, which, if Animate, is placed in the Oblique Case with ¨îð÷ (97-b), and if Inanimate, in the Direct Case (94-c): Ùð¸ðÇõÜ Ñð÷Àÿ ò±ðÜðÃðð èø `the labourer fells the tree`. (b) A Transitive Verb has two Objects in the first Causal-the original Object, and the original Subject. The original Object in such cases becomes the primary Object, ov course, has the Direct form and the secondary Object has the Oblique form with ¨îð÷ (94-c and 97-d): ×ðµµðð ÇõÏð ÑðóÃðð èø `the child sucks (milk)», Ùððû ×ðµµð÷ ¨îð÷ ÇõÏð òÑðâððÃðó èø `the mother suckles the child`. Similarly, ¡ÏÚððÑð¨î òãðÌððòÆðáÚðð÷ü ¨îð÷ òâð®ðÐðð òçð®ððÃðð èø ` the teacher teaches the students how to write`. (c) This rule, however, holds good only with such first Causals as denote real activity on the part of the Subject (of the Causal), and not mere causation (getting something done). Where mere causation is denoted, the secondary Object (original Subject) functions as an `Agent` and has the Oblique form with çð÷:
Neither `Ram` nor `I` does anything here, except to order or direct the servant and the washerman. When a Verb of the type (a) has the second Causal form, the original Subject remains as it was in the first Causal form, namely, an Object, but the Subject of the first Causal has a çð÷:-
Similarly,
In the case of a Verb of the type (b), the original Subject and the Object remain what they were in the first Causal, namely, secondary Object andy primary Object, while the Subject of the first Causal has çð÷:-
(a) Some roots have no causal forms at all. Such are e.g.
Occasionally, they have a ``Substitute Causal``, some other Verb runctioning as a causal for them. Thus, Øð÷¸ðÐðð `to send (to make to go)» is a Substitute Causal of ¸ððÐðð `to go`; ¨îÜÐðð `to do, to make (to cause to be)» may function as a causal of èð÷Ððð `to be`; and Ç÷Ððð `to give (to cause to obtain)» that of ÑððÐðð `to obtain`. (b) âððÐðð `to bring` makes its first Causal with the help of âð÷Ððð: òâðãðð âððÐðð `to cause to bring`. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
CHAPTER XXXIII | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hindi has a large numberof compound verbs..these, as already noted (167), are formed by combining two, sometimes three or more, verbs. ãðè ±ððÐð÷ âð±ðð `he started singing`, But ãðè ®ððÐðð ®ððÃðð µðâðð ¸ðð Üèð èø `he is going on (continuously) eating`,ãðè ®ððÃðó µðâðó ¸ðð Üèó èø `she is going on eating`, As already stated (170), the Subsidiary Verbs help to modify the `aspect` or the nature of the action denoted by the main Verbçðð÷Ððð `to sleep`, çðð÷ ¸ððÐðð `to fall asleep`., Effectuve Aspect; or Completive); ®ððÐðð `to eat ®ððÐð÷ âð±ðÐðð `to start eating`, (Inceptive or Inchoative Aspect); ¡ðÐðð `to come`, ¡ðÚðð ¨îÜÐðð `to come frequently`, (Frequentative Aspect). ãðè ¡ð Üèð èø `he is coming` is Progressive Aspect with a special form. See:- (a) ÜèÐðð as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: ãðè ¸ðð Üè ð èø `he is going`, ãðè ¸ððÃðð ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps going (habitually), ãðè ×ðø¿ð ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps sitting`, ãðè ¨ ð÷¾ ÑðèÐð÷ ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps wearing a coat, (b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect. It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods (¸ððÃðð Üè÷±ðð, µðâðÃðð Üèð, ×ðø¿÷ Üè÷, ÑðèÐð÷ Üèð èð÷Ãðð etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary ÜèÐðð is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past (¸ðð Üèð èø — ¸ðð Üèð Æðð) or in the Subjective forms ¡ðÃðð èð÷, ¡ðÃðð èð÷Ãðð, ¡ðÃðð èð÷±ðð, ¡ð Üèð èð÷, ¡ð Üèð èð÷Ãðð, ¡ð Üèð èð÷±ðð. In fact, ¡ð Üèð is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound ¡ð + ÜèÐðð, and as equivalent to ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð, ¸ððÃðð èô¡ð etc. (241). ãðè ¸ððÃðð èø (¸ðð Üèð èø) Present Indicative, The Üèð forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms (¸ððÃðð èø etc.). Some Subsidiary Verbs help to change the Voice of the main Verb, usually from Active to Passive: ®ðð÷Ððð `to lose`, ®ðð÷ (or ®ðð÷Úðð) ¸ððÐðð `to get lost`. The Compound Verbs may be divided into four groups according to the form of main Verb; viz.; (1) Bare Root (i.e. Absolutive without ¨îÜ), (2) Infinitive, (3) Present Participle, and (4) Past Participle. 255. It is important to remember that, whether the main root is Transitive or Intransitive, a compound Verb admits of objectival construction (with a past participle) only it the Subsidiary is Transitive. Thus: Main Verb: Bare — Root (Absolutive Form) In the compound verbs of this class, the main Verb has the absolutive form without ¨îÜ (243) which is identical with its root form, and remains unchanged. The subsidiary Verbs commonly used are as follows:- (b) ¡ðÐðð `to come` retains part of its own meaning while indicating Ùðøü ¨îðÙð ¨îÜ ¡ðÚðð `I come having done the work,» (c) ¸ððÐðð `to go` indicates `completion` besides making passives (Chapter XIV): ÀðâðÐðð `to throw, is combined with Transitive Verbs and indicates `completion` with vehemence and within a short time: (a) ÜèÐðð as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: ãðè ¸ðð Üè ð èø `he is going`, ãðè ¸ððÃðð ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps going (habitually), ãðè ×ðø¿ð ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps sitting`, ãðè ¨ ð÷¾ ÑðèÐð÷ ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps wearing a coat, (b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect. (c) It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods (¸ððÃðð Üè÷±ðð, µðâðÃðð Üèð, ×ðø¿÷ Üè÷, ÑðèÐð÷ Üèð èð÷Ãðð etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary ÜèÐðð is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past (¸ðð Üèð èø — ¸ðð Üèð Æðð) or in the Subjective forms ¡ðÃðð èð÷, ¡ðÃðð èð÷Ãðð, ¡ðÃðð èð÷±ðð, ¡ð Üèð èð÷, ¡ð Üèð èð÷Ãðð, ¡ð Üèð èð÷±ðð. (d) In fact, ¡ð Üèð is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound ¡ð + ÜèÐðð, and as equivalent to ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð, ¸ððÃðð èô¡ð etc. (241). (e) It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :- ãðè ¸ððÃðð èø (¸ðð Üèð èø) Present Indicative, The Üèð forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms (¸ððÃðð èø etc.). ÙðøüÐð÷ Ñðëð òâð®ð Ü®ðð èø `I have kept the letter ready (written)»: Main Verb: Infinitive 257. This group can be divided into two sub-groups- where the main Verb has an unodified infinitive form and where the main Verb has the oblique form (i.e. — Ðð÷ instead of — Ððð of the Infinitive). 258. The more important subsidiaries combined with a main Verb µððèÐðð `to want` retains its meaning. See :-The abstract idea represented by an Infinitive being ``inanimate``, It is not usual to attach ¨îð÷ when the Infinitive is used as an object. It does, however, attach ¨îð÷ for signifying ``for the purpose of`` or ``with a view to``. THe ¨îð÷ is occasionally replaced by ¨÷î òâðÚð÷ (see: — a.The following are used with ¨÷î (or — Ü÷) :- and both ¨îð÷and ¨÷î òâðÚð÷ may be omitted when the Infinitive is followed by the Verb ¡ð `come` and ¸ðð `go`
¡ðÐðð, ÑðóÐðð etc. in such sentences may be regarded as the objects of µððè The important subsidiaries are as follows :- ¡ðÐðð retains its meaning (`to come`), while denoting `imminence` or `immediacy`: äðëðô µðÁÿð ¡ðÃðð èø `the enemy is advancing (on us)», ¸ððÐðð combined with an Intransitive main Verb denotes Ùðøü ÇÇá çð÷ ÙðÜð ¸ðð Üèð èõûü `I am about to die of pain`, This use of ¸ððÐðð with a past participle is not to be confused with the passive forms, (272). ÑðÀÿÐðð `to fall down` is usually combined with Verbs having a âðÀÿ¨îó ò±ðÜó ÑðÀÿÃðó èø `the girl is about to fall down`, ¨îÜÐðð denotes `frequency` or habitual action`: ÏÚððÐð çð÷ ÑðÁÿð ¨îÜð÷ ` (make it a habit to) read attentively`, ÜèÐðð combined with a past participle (having a passive sense) ãðè ®ðð¾ ÑðÜ ÑðÀÿð Üèð `he kept lying on the bed`, µððèÐðð `to want` denotes `imminence`: ãðæððá ¡ðÚðð µððèÃðó èø `it is about to start raining`, With the following subsidiaries, the main Verb has the oblique ¸ððÐðð denotes `continuity or imminent completion`: ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ò¨î¦ ¸ðð¡ð÷ `continue to do your work`, âð÷Ððð denotes `imminent completion of something for oneself`: Ùðøü Úðè Ñðð¿ ¡Øðó ÑðÁÿ÷ âð÷Ãðð èõû `I shall read this lesson in no time,» Ç÷Ððð similarly denotes `imminent completion of an action for some one else`: Ùðøü ¡ðÑð¨îð ¨îðÙð ¡Øðó ò¨î¦ Ç÷Ãðð èõû `I shall finish your work in no time`. (j) ÀðâðÐðð denotes `imminent completion`: Àð¨õî Ùðô»ð÷ ÙððÜ÷ ÀðâðÃð÷ èøü `the robbers are about to kill me`, ÜèÐðð denotes `continuity of a state or of a completed action`: ãðè çðÇð òÑð¦ ÜèÃðð èø `he is always drunk`,
and See:- (a) ÑðÀÿÐðð and èð÷Ððð (and the substantive Æðð) combine with infinitives (as already noted 238) and denote `necessity, obligation, requirement` etc. The compounds thus made are passive in meaning. The subject has ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ¸ððÐðð ÑðÀÿð `Ram had to go`, However, when an Infinitive is Transitive, it is used as an Adjective to its object and changes its ending -Ððð to-Ððó or — ne according as the object is Feminine (sg. or pl.) or Masculine pl. The subsidiaries also agree with the object in Number and Gender: âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ Çãðð ÑðóÐðó ÑðÀÿ÷±ðó `the boy will have to take medicine`, Note: It is not correct to say ×ðµµð÷ ¨îð÷ Çãðð ÑðóÐðó ÑðÀÿó or Ùðô»ð÷ ÃðóÐð Ñðëð òâð®ðÐðð Æðð as is sometimes done on the analogy of Intransitive Infinitives ¸ððÐðð ÑðÀÿ÷±ðð, ¸ððÐðð Æðð etc. (c)µððòè¦ `is wanted` or `ought to be.....` is a true passive It can be combined with a Noun in the first sense (`is wanted`) and with an Infinitive (noun, if Intransitive and Adjective, if ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü µððòè¦ `Ram wants books` (literally, books are wanted by (for) Ram)», ÃðôÙè÷ü ©Úðð µððòè¦ `what do you want? (What is wanted by you ?), 259. The subsidiaries frequently combined with a main Verb in the oblique form are:- âð±ðÐðð (Intransitive) denotes `to begin to .....`, and is very frequently used: ãðè ¸ððÐð÷ âð±ðð `he started (to go)», ãðè ¸ðÙðó ®ðð÷ÇÐð÷ âð±ðð `he began to dig the ground`. Ç÷Ððð `to give` denotges `to permit to.....,» `to let....`: ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ÑðÁÿÐð÷ Çð÷ `let Ram study`, ÑððÐðð `to obtain` denotes `to be able to` `to be permitted to....`, (usually negative) Ùðøü ¨ôî¶ÿ Ððèóü ¨îÜÐð÷ ÑððÚðð `I was not able to do anything`, Main Verb: Present Participle 260. The main Verb as a Present Participle is affected by the Number and the Gender of the subject, or of the object. Compound Verbs with the main Verb in the Present Participle form have the following subsidiaries: ¸ððÐðð denotes `to go on doing something`: Üð÷±ð ×ðÁÿÃðð ¸ððÃðð èø `the malady goes on aggravating`. ÜèÐðð denotes `continue to do something as a habit`: ãðè çð×ð÷Ü÷ çð÷ äððÙð Ãð¨î ¨îðÙð `he keeps working from moning till Note: ¸ððÐðð compounds refer to a particular act and ÜèÐðð compounds to a habit. For the progressive use of ÜèÐðð, see :- (a) ÜèÐðð as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: ãðè ¸ðð Üè ð èø `he is going`, ãðè ¸ððÃðð ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps going (habitually), ãðè ×ðø¿ð ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps sitting`, ãðè ¨ ð÷¾ ÑðèÐð÷ ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps wearing a coat, (b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect. It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods (¸ððÃðð Üè÷±ðð, µðâðÃðð Üèð, ×ðø¿÷ Üè÷, ÑðèÐð÷ Üèð èð÷Ãðð etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary ÜèÐðð is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past (¸ðð Üèð èø — ¸ðð Üèð Æðð) or in the Subjective forms ¡ðÃðð èð÷, ¡ðÃðð èð÷Ãðð, ¡ðÃðð èð÷±ðð, ¡ð Üèð èð÷, ¡ð Üèð èð÷Ãðð, ¡ð Üèð èð÷±ðð. In fact, ¡ð Üèð is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound ¡ð + ÜèÐðð, and as equivalent to ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð, ¸ððÃðð èô¡ð etc. (241). ãðè ¸ððÃðð èø (¸ðð Üèð èø) Present Indicative, The Üèð forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms (¸ððÃðð èø etc.). ¡ðÐðð denotes `continuity` form some past time until the present and into the futuer: èÙð ×ðÜçðð÷ü çð÷ Úðèð ÜèÃð÷ ¡ðÚð÷ èøü `we have been living here for The sense is almost that of a present perfect. The compound is used only in the persent perfect and past perfect. ×ðÐðÐðð denotes `possible to do` (passive,). The present participle has the oblique form, and has the sense of a Noun: Ùðô»ðçð÷ ãðèðû ¸ððÃð÷ Ððèóü ×ðÐðÃðð `I do not find it possible (or desirable) to go there`. (¸ððÃð÷ in the above sentence is adverbial or absolutive (cf.241-d). Main Verb: Past Participle 261. The main Varb as past participle is affected by the Number and Gender of the subject, or of the object. The important subsidiaries are as follows :- ¡ðÐðð retains its meaning (`to come`), while denoting `imminence` or `immediacy`: äðëðô µðÁÿð ¡ðÃðð èø `the enemy is advancing (on us)», ¸ððÐðð combined with an Intransitive main Verb denotes Ùðøü ÇÇá çð÷ ÙðÜð ¸ðð Üèð èõûü `I am about to die of pain`, This use of ¸ððÐðð with a past participle is not to be confused with the passive forms, (272). ÑðÀÿÐðð `to fall down` is usually combined with Verbs having a âðÀÿ¨îó ò±ðÜó ÑðÀÿÃðó èø `the girl is about to fall down`, ¨îÜÐðð denotes `frequency` or habitual action`: ÏÚððÐð çð÷ ÑðÁÿð ¨îÜð÷ ` (make it a habit to) read attentively`, ÜèÐðð combined with a past participle (having a passive sense) ãðè ®ðð¾ ÑðÜ ÑðÀÿð Üèð `he kept lying on the bed`, µððèÐðð `to want` denotes `imminence`: ãðæððá ¡ðÚðð µððèÃðó èø `it is about to start raining`, With the following subsidiaries, the main Verb has the oblique ¸ððÐðð denotes `continuity or imminent completion`: ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ò¨î¦ ¸ðð¡ð÷ `continue to do your work`, âð÷Ððð denotes `imminent completion of something for oneself`: Ùðøü Úðè Ñðð¿ ¡Øðó ÑðÁÿ÷ âð÷Ãðð èõû `I shall read this lesson in no time,» Ç÷Ððð similarly denotes `imminent completion of an action for some one else`: Ùðøü ¡ðÑð¨îð ¨îðÙð ¡Øðó ò¨î¦ Ç÷Ãðð èõû `I shall finish your work in no time`. (j) ÀðâðÐðð denotes `imminent completion`: Àð¨õî Ùðô»ð÷ ÙððÜ÷ ÀðâðÃð÷ èøü `the robbers are about to kill me`, ÜèÐðð denotes `continuity of a state or of a completed action`: ãðè çðÇð òÑð¦ ÜèÃðð èø `he is always drunk`, Note: (1) Compound Verbs noted in (a) — (d) can be used only It will be seen from the above discussion that the aspects most Apart from the Tgerminate aspect, which has no special froms (170-d), the most important aspect, however, is the Progressive which is discussed below in detail. PROGRESSIVE FORM (ÜèÐðð) (a) ÜèÐðð as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: ãðè ¸ðð Üè ð èø `he is going`, ãðè ¸ððÃðð ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps going (habitually), ãðè ×ðø¿ð ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps sitting`, ãðè ¨ ð÷¾ ÑðèÐð÷ ÜèÃðð èø `he keeps wearing a coat, (b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect. It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods (¸ððÃðð Üè÷±ðð, µðâðÃðð Üèð, ×ðø¿÷ Üè÷, ÑðèÐð÷ Üèð èð÷Ãðð etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary ÜèÐðð is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past (¸ðð Üèð èø — ¸ðð Üèð Æðð) or in the Subjective forms ¡ðÃðð èð÷, ¡ðÃðð èð÷Ãðð, ¡ðÃðð èð÷±ðð, ¡ð Üèð èð÷, ¡ð Üèð èð÷Ãðð, ¡ð Üèð èð÷±ðð. In fact, ¡ð Üèð is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound ¡ð + ÜèÐðð, and as equivalent to ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð, ¸ððÃðð èô¡ð etc. (241). ãðè ¸ððÃðð èø (¸ðð Üèð èø) Present Indicative, The Üèð forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms (¸ððÃðð èø etc.). 263. Of the remaining Moods and Tenses, the Imperative has no progressive form; the Indicative Past has no progressive form — except the rare Verbs Compounded with Nouns or Adjectives 264. (a) There are a number of Nouns and Adjectives which can be combined with Verbs like — ¨îÜÐðð `to do`, èð÷Ððð `to be`, and Ç÷Ððð `to give` for denoting a single verbal idea. Thus:- êðÙðð `forgiveness` + ¨îÜÐðð `to do` denotes `to forgive`, It is important to remember that Nouns or Adjectives, when a) A Verb is a word denoting action, being, or becoming, with some reference to time and manner and used as Predicate (52): `Rama sleeps`; `he reads a book`; `they are my friends`; `he became mad`; `I gave him two books`. (b) A Verb may be Transitive, or Intransitive (57 and 58): reads and gave in the above sentences are Transitive, sleeps, are and became are Intransitive. (c) Some Verbs have two Objects: `I gave him two books` therefore, is the ``Dorect``, or the ``primary`` Object, and him is the ``Indirect`` or the ``Secondary`` Object. (In most of such cases, the Primary Object answers the question ``what?``, and the Secondary Object answers `Whom?`). (d) A Verb may denote an action as taking place at present: `he is going`; or as having taken place in the past: `he went`; or due to take place in the Future: `he will go`. It may further express a command or a wish: `go there,» `may he be happy`; or ask a question: `Will you come?` In contrast with the above, in a sentence like Ùðøü Øðð÷¸ðÐð ¨îÜÃðð èõû `I take meal`, Øðð÷¸ðÐð ¨îÜÐðð is not compound since here Øðð÷¸ðÐð is obviously the object of ¨îÜÐðð and has its own existence. In the same way, ¨îðÙð ¨îÜÐðð `to do work` is not a compound since ¨îðÙð does have an independent existence in such sentences as ÙðøüÐð÷ ¡ðÑð¨îð ¨îðÙð ò¨îÚðð `I did your work` The verbs most frequently combining with a Noun or an Adjective are ¨îÜÐðð, èð÷Ððð, ¡ðÐðð, ÜèÐðð, ÑðÀÿÐðð and âð±ðÐðð. some of the frequently combining with a Noun or an Adjective Some of the frequently used compounds made with ¨îÜÐðð are:- All these are Transitive. The Objects, if animate, have the oblique case with ¨îð÷ (or ¦); if inanimate, they are in the direct case: ÙðøüÐð÷ µðð÷Ü ¨îð÷ êðÙðð ò¨îÚðð `I forgave the thief` (neutral construction), èð÷Ððð, ¡ðÐðð, âð±ðÐðð and ÜèÐðð form Intransitive compounds are of a passive nature although of active formation. The action, state etc. denoted by them is represented as experienced, suffered, enjoyed, felt etc. by or happening to, the subject which is placed in the oblique case with ¨îð÷ or-¦ Whatever the subject suffers or experiences, or whatever happens to him, is represented as taking place of itself, not as done by anybody. The thing suffered or experienced is placed in the direct case and the Verb agrees with it. èð÷Ððð forms a large number of such compounds:- Çô:®ð èð÷Ððð `to feel unhappy`, Note: A few compounds of èð÷Ððð which do not refer to a thing suffered, experienced etc. are Active : ¡ðÜüØð (or äðôÞ) èð÷Ððð `to begin` (Intransitive), ¡ðÐðð similarly denotes `to get (intrans.)...», ` (to begin) to feel...`: Note: ¨îðÙð ¡ðÐðð `to be of use` = ¨îðÙð Ùð÷ü ¡ðÐðð `to come into use`: âð±ðÐðð combines with Adjectives as well as with Nouns: Øðõ®ð âð±ðÐðð `to feel hungry`, Note: Adjectives when combined with âð±ðÐðð agree with the object in Gender and Number. ×ðµµð÷ ¨îð÷ Øðõ®ð âð±ðó èø `the child is hungry`, ÜèÐðð denotes `continuity`: ÚððÇ ÜèÐðð `to continue to remember`, Ç÷Ððð and ÑðÀÿÐðð are combined with certain Abstract Nouns (derived form Verbs) ending in — ¡ðýá [App. I 8 (5)]. òÇ®ððýá Ç÷Ððð or ÑðÀÿÐðð `to come into view, to be seen`, The Verbs discussed above differ from the normal passive Verbs in as much as the latter are formed by combining a past participle with the subsidiary ¸ððÐðð (or are passive by nature) and have their logical subject always in the oblique form with çð÷. Also, the normal passives denote action on the part of their logical subject, not experience. See next chapter. The following exceptional compounds are noteworthy:- ÑðÀÿÐðð is also combined withthe roots Ç÷®ð (Çó®ð), çðôÐð and ¸ððÐð and with the Adjective ÙððâðõÙð `known` (and has the same sense as in 267): Ç÷®ð or Çó®ð ÑðÀÿÐðð = òÇ®ððýá ÑðÀÿÐðð `to be seen`, Çó®ðÐðð `to be seen` can combine with any object; it has the same sense as òÇ®ððýá Ç÷Ððð (òÇ®ðÐðð is dialectic and should be avoided). òÙðâðÐðð `to meet`, when combined with an object, has a passive sense, ×ðµµð÷ ¨îð÷ ©Úðð èô¡ð? `what happened to the child?` (a) ÑðÀÿÐðð and èð÷Ððð (and the substantive Æðð) combine with infinitives (as already noted 238) and denote `necessity, obligation, requirement` etc. The compounds thus made are passive in meaning. The subject has ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ¸ððÐðð ÑðÀÿð `Ram had to go`, However, when an Infinitive is Transitive, it is used as an Adjective to its object and changes its ending -Ððð to-Ððó or — ne according as the object is Feminine (sg. or pl.) or Masculine pl. The subsidiaries also agree with the object in Number and Gender: âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ Çãðð ÑðóÐðó ÑðÀÿ÷±ðó `the boy will have to take medicine`, Note: It is not correct to say ×ðµµð÷ ¨îð÷ Çãðð ÑðóÐðó ÑðÀÿó or Ùðô»ð÷ ÃðóÐð Ñðëð òâð®ðÐðð Æðð as is sometimes done on the analogy of Intransitive Infinitives (¸ððÐðð ÑðÀÿ÷±ðð, ¸ððÐðð Æðð etc. [see (a) above] which are Nouns. (c)µððòè¦ `is wanted` or `ought to be.....` is a true passive (see 277) It can be combined with a Noun in the first sense (`is wanted`) and with an Infinitive (noun, if Intransitive and Adjective, if ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü µððòè¦ `Ram wants books` (literally, books are wanted by (for) Ram)», ÃðôÙè÷ü ©Úðð µððòè¦ `what do you want? (What is wanted by you ?), Note: (i) ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ ÑðÁÿÐðð µððòè¦ is as incorrect as Çãðð ÑðóÐðð ÑðÀÿð However, µððòè¦ does not modify (asÑðÁÿÐðð and èð÷Ððð do). µððòè¦û as a plural of µððòè¦ (¡ðÑð¨îð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü ÑðÁÿÐðó µððòè¦û) is occasionally met with, but had better be doscarded ¡ðÐðð in the sense `to be known` usually combines with Infinitives and some pronouns like ©Úðð, ¨ô¶ etc.: ÃðôÙð¨îð÷ ÑðÁÿÐðð ¡ðÃðð èø? `do you know how to read?` | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
CHAPTER XXXIV | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The Passive Voice has already (171-b) been defined as the form of a verb which repersents the subject as the upon. The grammatical subject The Passive, however, does have the neutral construction where the Verb has masc. third person, singular form,agreeing neither with the logical Subject (which is seldom mentioned), nor with the Object. This, for example is the case in ¨îÙðâðð ¨îð÷ ×ðôôâððÚðð ±ðÚðð `Kamala was called` (literally, `with reference to Kamala, it was called`). Who called Kamala is not mentioned and `Kamala` the Object has the Oblique Case with ¨îð÷. This construction is commonly used when the Object is Animate, although ¨îÙðâðð ×ðôâððýá ±ðýá is equally correct. (a) But whatever the construction, the formation of Passive Voice is regular. It is simply made by combining the Verb ¸ððÐðð `to go` with the Past Participle of the main root:
(b) The Compound Verb thus made is treated like an ordinary Verb, the Past Participle (main Verb) agreeing with the Object in Number and Gender and the subsidiary ¸ððÐðð being modified to form Aspect, Mood and Tense, (cf 261) :
The Infinitive form is ÙððÜð ¸ððÐðð, the Present Participle is ÙððÜð ¸ððÃðð èô¡ð, and Past Participle is ÙððÜð ±ðÚðð (or èô¡ð). See:- The Present Participle represents an action as proceeding or progressing. It is progressive by nature, although with èø and Æðð, ot assumes a terminate chararacter. The Present Participle, therefore, has no need of a fresh Progressive form. However, a èô¡ð is sometimes attached to a Present Participle in order to make it a clear progressive (241-b and 262-d). The Üèð progressive of Present Participle is a further attempt at expressing the progressive aspect with perfect clarity, and forms like ÇðøÀÿ Üèó ±ððÀÿó `the running train` and ò±ðÜ Üèó ãðæððá `the falling rain` are being used especially in poetry. They are, however, hardly necessary. If the main Verb has two Objects, the secondary Object has ¨îð÷ (or-¦ with Pronouns) and the primary Object is put in the Direct Case, with which the Verb agrees:
(a) It is not usual to mention the logical Subject (the ``doer``) of a Passive Verb, unless absolutely necessary. The Subject, thus, has to be mentioned when its ability or inability to do something is expressed:
The ``doer``, if mentioned, has çð÷. (b) Apart from the above (`ability` — `inability` case), a logical Subject may sometimes have to be mentioned for the sake of clarity etc. In such cases, çð÷ may be substituted by ¨÷î èðÆð or ¨÷î èðÆðð÷ü `at the hands of....`, or in affected style by ¨÷î ÎðÜð.
(a) Apart from the ¸ððÐðð passives discussed above, there are a large number of Verbs which are Passive by nature (without the help of a subsidiary or nominal compound). Some of these have been mentioned in 248 and 249 (d):
(b) All these are, of course, Intransitive in form. Their Active forms are naturally Transitive. Both the Passive and the Active forms now exist as independent Verbs, the Passive usually having short vowels and the Active having the corresponding long vowels : Passive Active
The Active forms are used like ordinary Transitive Verbs. They are not Causals. and they can form a Passive as well: ¨îð¾ð ¸ððÐðð, ®ðð÷âðð ¸ððÐðð, ×ððûÏðð ¸ððÐðð, etc. These ¸ððÐðð Passives differ from the natural Passives [noted in (a) above] in signification. The Natural Passives represent the action as happening of itself-spontaneously, and naturally: there is not the slightest hint of its being done by somebody. Hence the doer is not mentioned:
The ¸ððÐðð Passives, on the other hand, represent the action as being performed by a doer who may or may not be mentioned, but can be guessed:
Note: With a first person doer, ``inability`` to do something may imply ``unwillingeness``: Úðè Ñð÷Àÿ Ùðô»ðçð÷ Ððèóü ¨î¾Ãðð may mean `I am not willing to undertake the heavy task of cutting this tree`. ×ðÐðÐðð `to be made` is also used in the sense `possible to do` when it is usually combined with the Subsidiary ÑðÀÿÐðð (256-g). The subject, as in (e) is almost always mentioned:- Ùðô»ðçð÷ ¸ðð÷ ×ðÐð ÑðÀÿð ¨îÞû±ðð èð÷Ððð `to happen`, òÙðâðÐðð `to be found or met with`, and Çó®ðÐðð `to be seen` have already been noted above (269 b-c-d) as Passive denoting experience etc. òÙðâðÐðð `to meet` is also Active. But Çó®ðÐðð is an original Passive denoting experience, etc. òÙðâðÐðð `to meet ` is also Active. But Çó®ðÐðð is an original Passive derived form Ç÷®ðÐðð `to see`. It is, however, used only as a Passive of experience. (269-b). µððòè¦ is specially to be noted. It has already been discussed in 270 c. µððòè¦ is, in fact, a true passive derived from µððèÐðð `to want`. In form, it is an old indicative present passive, in third person singular. The plural form could be µððòè¦û. But µððòè¦ is now felt as an isolated and unchangeable form, so µððòè¦û is incorrect.] THE IMPERSONAL VOICE The Impersonal Voice, as stated earlier (171-c), is restricted to Intransitive Verbs, and is always in the neutral construction (273-c) being always in the third person singular masculine form. The Verb has the form of a ¸ððÐðð passive, viz. past participle of the main Verb + ¸ððÐðð (272-a) Note: The above sentence differs from a sentence in passive — Ùðô»ðçð÷ µððÚð Ððèóü Ñðó ¸ððÃðó (271-b) — only in so far as it has an Intransitive Verb which, naturally, does not have to agree with an object because none exists. Otherwise, the formation and expression of the two sentences are identical. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ADVERBS, POST-POSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS
AND INTERJECTIONS
CHAPTER XXXV | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Abverbs, Post-Postions, Conjunction An Adverb is a word that modifies or qualifies a Verb i.e. In a sentence like `he writes very carefully`, the word very
Some of these Adjective-modifying words have been noted in 141. Hindi Adverbs can be divided into two classes: those formed from pronouns, and the rest. Bothe these classes may be subdivided into various groups according to their meaning. The pronominal Adverbs, like the pronominal Adjectives (137) are derived from Demonstrative, Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. These are:- ¡×ð `now`, Úðèðû `here`, ýÏðÜ `hither`, Úðð÷ü `thus` (from Úðè); — - ãðèðû `there`, £ÏðÜ `thither`, (from ãðè); ¸ð×ð `when`, ¸ðèðû `where`, ò¸ðÏðÜ `whither`, ¸Úðð÷ü `as` (from ¸ðð÷); ¨î×ð `when?`, ¨îèðû `where`, ò¨îÏðÜ `whither?`, ©Úðð÷ü `why?` from (¨îðøÐð); Ãð×ð `then`, Ãðèðû `there`, òÃðÏðÜ `thither`, ÃÚðð÷ü `so, in the same way` (from çðð÷). Ãðèðùü and òÃðÏðÜ (except in proverbs) are archaic or dialectic and as such should not be used. The other two Adverbs derived from çðð÷ [ the archaic correlative Pronoun 110 (iii), viz. Ãð×ð and ÃÚðð÷ü] are affiliated to ãðè (so that the second series in the above list would be Ãð×ð, ãðèðû £ÏðÜ ÃÚðð÷ü). Note that ©Úðð÷ü does not mean `how`. The word for `how` is ¨øîçð÷ (287), or ©Úðð÷ü ¨îÜ (ðܵðèðòµð 285-1). Of the Pronominal adverbs listed above: (a) ¡×ð, ¸ð×ð, ¨î×ð and Ãð×ð are Adverbs of Time; All these Adverbs can append the emphatic particle èó (294 a): ýÏðÜ èó `this very direction, just hither`, £ÏðÜ èó `in that very direction, just thither`. With ¡×ð etc. and Úðèðû etc., however, èó combines in Sandhi, as already noted in 50-c and e:
The following special uses of the pronominal Adverbs may be noted: ¡×ð like the English `now` (introductory) may denote `then` in narration etc.
The interrogation in the first sentence is due to ©Úðð (expressed or implied, 112-ii), and not due to ¨îØðó. :- ¨îèóü is not an emphatic interrogative. It denotes `somewhere, at some (or, any) place`: ãðè ¨îèóü ±ðÚðð èø `he has gone somewhere`, ¨îØðó-¨îØðó denotes `sometimes, occasionally` (App. III 5-f) ¨îØðó `just when (as)» (relative) = and ¸ð×ð Øðó `whenever` are now less frequent, the former having been replaced by ¸Úðð÷ü èó [ (i) belowÿ], ãðè ¨îèóü ±ðÚðð èø `he has gone somewhere`, Note:- In rhetorical-Interrogative sentences, ¨îØðó and ¨îèóü ÃðôÙð ¨îØðó (¨îèóü) Ùð÷Üó ×ððÃð çðôÐðÃð÷ Øðó èð÷? `do you ever (at all) listen to me ?` (=`you never listen to me`). The Verb in such sentences is followed by a Øðó. ¨îèóü is used in a similar sense in negative rhetorical-Interrogative sentences, where it expresses undesirability of a possible occurrence, action etc.
With pronominal (and other) Adverbs denoting time, ¨îð has occasionally the sense of çð÷ (from, since): (a) The pronominal Adjectives ¦÷çðð, ãðøçðð, ¨øîçðð, ¸ðøçðð, Ãðøçðð (137 a), in their oblique forms ¦÷çð÷, ãðøçð, ¨øîçð÷ etc. are used as Adverbs of Manner; ¦÷çð÷ `in this manne, thus`, ¨ôî¶, ¨ôî¶ — ¨ôî¶ `a little`, `partly`, `to some extent`, and ×ðèôÃð-¨ôî¶ `to a great extent`, `a great deal` are also used adverbially (111 and 118-16, 15): Adverbs other than the pronominal may also be divided into various groups. Some of these are Adjectives used as Adverbs: äððÙð ¨îð÷ `in the evening`, ÏÚððÐð çð÷ `attentively`, However, Nouns denoting time which is specified by an Adjective (or a word used as an Adjective), or even otherwise, are generally used with out the case-signs ¨îð÷ and Ùð÷ü (cf 97-f): ¨îâð ÜðÃð (Ùð÷ü) Ç÷Ü çð÷ âððø¾ð `last night I returned late`, The same principle is followed in the case of Nouns which denoote (unaided by an Adjective) a specific time, and which are now felt mor or less as ``original`` Adverbs (see:- The more important ``Original`` Adverbs may be divided into the following groups according to their meaning. Many of these are, in fact, Nouns or Adjectives with case-signs (and modifications due to them) omitted or dropped or worn out by use. Adverbs of Time: ¡ð±ð÷ `before, in front`, Ñðó¶÷ `behind, at the back`, ¡ð÷Ü `towards`, ýçð ¡ð÷Ü `this way` Thus- Of the Verbs used as Adverbs, Participles (Present and Past) and the Absolutive are the most frequent. See :- (a) The Present Participle can be used like an ordinary Adjective:
Occasionally, however, (for the ske of clarity) a èô¡ð, èôýá or èô¦ Òõîâðð÷ü ¨îð÷ ÙðÃð Ãðð÷Àÿð÷ etc.
When a Present Participle is used as part of the Predicate, it has an adverbial sense, and consequently the oblique form:
With èó, a Present Participle (oblique) denotes ``immediately after``, ``as soon as``: A Present Participle, like other Adjectives, can be used also as a Noun, in which case it is declined like an -¡ð Noun (90) :
Ùð÷Ü÷ ¡ðÃð÷ èó `as soon as I came`, The more important ``Original`` Adverbs may be divided into the following groups according to their meaning. Many of these are, in fact, Nouns or Adjectives with case-signs (and modifications due to them) omitted or dropped or worn out by use. Adverbs of Time: ¡ð±ð÷ `before, in front`, Ñðó¶÷ `behind, at the back`, ¡ð÷Ü `towards`, ýçð ¡ð÷Ü `this way` 293. Adverbs of affirmation and Negation are: èðû is the simple affirmative `yes`, ÜðÙð ç¨õîâð Ùð÷ü Ððèóü ÑðÁÿÃðð, ³ðÜ ÑðÜ ÑðÁÿÃðð èø `Ram does not study in a school, he studies at home. ` ÙðÃð is used only in the Imperative and is somewhat curt. As a mild prohibitive, Ðð is more idiomatic. In the Optative, Ðð is almost exclusively the choice: ÙðøüÐð÷ èðû ¨îÜ Çó `I accepted`, (lit, `I said `yes`)», PARTICLES Besides the Verb- (or Adverb-) modifying Adverbs, which usually precede the Verb they modify but can (if necessary) be separated from it, there are a number of adverbial words of a subsidiary nature, which are attached to a particular word inthe seentence for denoting emphasis, contrast etc., and invariably follow it. These are called `Particles`. They can usually be attached to any word in the sentence. The more important Hindi particles are the following: èó denotes either emphasis or is equivalent of `alone` (as in `you alone`, `he alone` etc.) : ÜðÙð ¡ðÑð (èó) ãðèðü ±ðÚðð Æðð `Ram himself had gone there`; Ùðô»ð÷ ¡ðÑð èó ¸ððÐðð ÑðÀÿ÷±ðð `I shall have to go myself`; ãð÷ ¡ðÑð (èó) ¡ð¦ü±ð÷ `they themselves will come`; ÜðÙð ¡ðÑð Øðõ®ðð èø `Ram is himself hungry`; £çðÐð÷ ¡ðÑð èó Úðè Ñðëð òâð®ðð èø `he himself has written this letter`. Further uses of èó will be illustrated by the following sentences: Thus- Ùðô¾þ¿ó ØðÜ = Ùðô¾þ¿ó ØðÜ ¨îÜ filling the handful`, The meaning `entire, whole` (and `only`) has evolved out of `filling, full`. It could, like the English-ful, be regarded as a suffix but for the fact that it is still felt as a separate word, and can, besides, be attached to Adjectives and Verbs, as well as to Nouns (and be synonymous with èó) cf. 294-e. Ùððëð is a Sanskrit suffix (originally the noun Ùððëðð `measurement`) denoting `only` or `whole`. In Sanskrit, it used to be attached to or tagged on to the main word: òÐðòÙðÄðÙððëð `just an agent or cause`, òãðÌððÙððëð `only learning`, êðÂðôÙððëð `just a moment`, òãðäãðÙððëð `the entire universe`, ÙððÐðãðÙððëð `the entire humanity`, ØðÜ is, in fact, the Absolutive (243) of the root `to fill`: Ùðô¾þ¿ó ØðÜ = Ùðô¾þ¿ó ØðÜ ¨îÜ filling the handful`, The meaning `entire, whole` (and `only`) has evolved out of `filling, full`. It could, like the English-ful, be regarded as a suffix but for the fact that it is still felt as a separate word, and can, besides, be attached to Adjectives and Verbs, as well as to Nouns (and be synonymous with èó) cf. 294-e. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Preposition is a word which indicates a relation between a Noun or a Pronoun and a Noun, Pronoun or Verb (66): A book for you; A bunch of flowers; Come with me. In Hindi, these words are placed after the Noun or Pronoun whose relation with another Noun etc. they denote. They may, therefore, be called post-positions. The case-signs Ðð÷, ¨îð÷, çð÷ etc. are Post-positions of a special nature (95). The Post-positions are attached to a Noun or a Pronoun sually with the help of the case-sign ¨îð (or-Üð in the case of first and second person Pronouns and — Ððð in reflexive which are in the oblique form ¨÷î (or -Ü÷, -Ðð÷): ÜðÙð ¨÷î çððÆð `along with Ram`, Ùð÷Ü÷ Ñððçð `with me` ¡ÑðÐð÷ Ñððçð `with me, with sombody`. The case-sign may sometimes be omitted: ÐðÇó (¨÷î) ÑððÜ `across the river`, Ñðó¿ (¨÷î) Ñðó¶÷, `behind the back`. A few Post-positions are attacned with the help of se: Ùðô»ð çð÷ Ñðèâð÷ `before me`, ³ðÜ çð÷ ×ððèÜ `outside the house`. Some are attached directly: ¡ÐÃð Ãð¨î `till the end`.
But in ãðè ÜðÙð ¨îð Øððýá èø `he is Ram`s brother` etc., ÜðÙð ¨îð is adjectival. In Hindi, a Noun or a Pronoun combined with a Post-position is often used as a Noun and can attach case-signs ;
In such cases, the Post-positions do not have an adverbial force. Some of the important Post-positions are given below: The following have ¨îó instead of ¨÷î:-
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CHAPTER XXXVII | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Conjunctions are words which join together or connect words, sentences, or Parts of a sentence (67): Mother and child came. (2) Is it good or bad? (3) I came, but you had gone. (4) you said that you would come. (5) The servant will wait until you come. It is, however, not often that a conjunction connects two words, sentences, `mother came` and `child came` which have been contracted into one for the sake of economy. Similarly, `is it good or bad` is contracted from `isit good` and `is it bad`. Only in sentences like, `put two and two together`, or `Sita and Kamla are cousin` can a conjuntion be said to connect two words. In the third example, `I came but you had gone`, the two smaller sentences are independent of each other. In the fourth sentence, however, `you would come` is subordinate to `you said`, since it functions as the object of `said`. In the last sentence, `until you come` is subordinate sentences so the main sentences to the main sentence are called Subordinating. `and`, `or`, and `but` in the above examples are Co-ordinating; `that` and `until` are subordinating. Some of the important Hindi Conjunctions are given below:- Co-0rdinating ÃðÆðð or ¡ðøÜ `and`; ¦ãðü (or ¦ãðÙðþ) `as well as`; ÙðèðÃÙðð ±ððüÏðó Ðð÷ çðÃÚð ¦ãðü ¡òüèçðð Çð÷Ððð÷ü ¨îð £ÑðÇ÷äð òÇÚðð `Mahatma Gandhi preached truth as well as non-violence`. It is desirable to restrict the use of ¦ãðÙðþ for `as well as` and not to use it as just a synonym of ¡ðøÜ. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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An Interjection is a word expressing some emotion (pain, pleasure, anger, surprise, dislike, disgust etc.): Oh! Alas! An Interjection, like a noun in the vocative case (102), has no grammatical relation with any other word in the sentence. It is, in fact, a sentence in itself. (Oh! = `I am surprised`, or `It is surprising`). In Hindi, most of the Interjections are used as independent words. Some, however, are prefixed to a Noun in the vocative case. (See: The vocative form is identical with the oblique, except that in the plural, ¡ð÷ü loss its nasalization. There are no case-signs but certain Interjections (¡ð÷) âðÀÿ¨÷î! Boy!` (¡ð÷) âðÀÿ¨îð÷ `Boys!` (¦) âðÀÿ¨îó! Girl!` (¡ð÷) âðÀÿò¨îÚðð÷ `Girls!` è÷ ýáäãðÜ! `O God!` ¡Ü÷ Ððóµð `O wretch!`. But µððµðð! `Uncle!` ÇðÇð! `Grandpa! etc. do not change. Note: The nasalized (-¡ð÷ü) forms should never be used for vocative plural, as is sometimes done by careless writers.): è÷ Øð±ðãððÐðþ! O God!` ¡ð÷ âðÀÿ¨÷î! `Boy!`. The following are the more important interjections in Hindi: ¡ð÷è! ¡Ü÷! ¡ð÷èð÷! èøü! ©Úðð! (surprise) Certain nouns, pronouns, adjectives and verbs are also used as interjections:
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SYNTAX
CHAPTER XXXIX | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In the first Person plural, feminine forms of verbs are now getting obsolete. Now-a-days, women speak of themselves as èÙð ¸ððÃðó èøü, èÙð ¨îÜ÷ü±ðó, èÙð ±ðýáü etc. In the singular, however, the Verb has the singular forms Ùðøü ¸ððÃðó èõû, Ùðøü ¨îÞû±ðó, Ùðøü ±ðýá etc. The usage has naturally affected Adjectives also, and in some places, it is no longer usual for women to say èÙð ¡µ¶ó èøü (`we are all right`, or, `we are doing well`). They would rather say èÙð ¡µ¶÷ èøü. This usage (or reluctance of women to retain indistinctive feminine Gender with rreference to themselves !) has further resulted in their preference for Plural over Singular of the first Person Pronoun, since Masculine forms of Sinngular Verbs (Ùðøü ¸ððÃðð èõû etc.) are, at present, confined strictly to Masculinc Subjects. A modern woman would, thus, speak of herself as èÙð ¸ððÃð÷ èøü rather than as Ùðøü ¸ððÃðó èõû. NUMBER With Nouns, the honorific plural (78-a) is restricted to the direct case, and even so only Masculine — ¡ð Nous of the type âðÀÿ¨îð (80-b) have the Plura forms. Thus, speaking of a single person, we can say £Ðð¨÷î ×ð÷¾÷ ¡ð¦ èøü `his son has come`; but not £Ðð¨÷î ×ð÷¾ð÷ü ¨îð÷ ×ðôâðð¡ð÷ which would mean, `call their sons`. For a single son, we can only say £Ðð¨÷î ×ð÷¾÷ ¨îð÷ ×ðôâðð¡ð÷, whether we `honour` the son or not. £Ðð¨÷î ×ð÷¾÷ ×ðôâð𦠱ð¦ `his son was called`, however, is all right, since here×ð÷¾÷ is in the direct case (the Verb being Passive). Words like µððµðð, ÙððÙðð, ÇðÇð etc., of course, do not change (80-exceptions); only the Verbs and the Adjectives referring to them have the plural form: Ùð÷Ü÷ ¶ð÷¾÷ µððµðð ¡ð¦ èøü `my younger uncle has come,. Feminine nouns, similarly, remain unchanged, the Verb alone being in the plural Ùð÷Üó ÙððÃðð (not ÙððÃðð¦û) ¡ðýá èøü `my mother has come`; £Ðð¨îó âðÀÿ¨îó (not âðÀÿò¨îÚððû) ¨îèÃðó èøü `his daughter says`. The Pronouns referring to any Noun in honorific plural have the regular plural forms: Úð÷ Ùð÷Ü÷ µððµðð èøü `this is my uncle`, ãð÷ Ùð÷Üó ×ðÀÿó ×ðòèÐð èøü `she is my elder sister`. Üðæ¾àÑðòÃð ¨îâð Úðèðû ¡ð Üè÷ èøü, £Ðð¨÷î çãðð±ðÃð ¨îó ÃðøÚððòÜÚððû èð÷ Üèó èøü `the President is arriving here to-morrow. Preparations for his welcome are afoot`. ¨îð÷ (97) (a) A pronoun referring to a person, when used as an object always attaches ¨îð÷ or its equivalents -¦ or — èøü. We can say ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ãðè âðÀÿ¨îð Ç÷®ðð (objectival construction) or ÜðÙð Ðð÷ £çð âðÀÿ¨÷î ¨îð÷ Ç÷®ðð (neutral construction). But we cannot say ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ãðè Ç÷®ðð. When ãðè refers to âðÀÿ¨îð etc., we must say ÜðÙð Ðð÷ £çð÷ (£çð¨îð÷) Ç÷®ðð. This is due to the fact that £çð÷ or £çð¨îð÷ refers is to a particular being. Consequently, ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ãðè âðÀÿ¨îð Ç÷®ðð is slipshod. (b) ÑðÃÆðÜð÷ü ¨îð÷ Ò÷üî¨î òÇÚðð ±ðÚðð, Ùð¨îðÐðð÷ü ¨îð÷ ò±ðÜð òÇÚðð ¸ðð¦ etc. are formal or affected, though frequently met with. Inanimate objects had better be used without ¨îð÷ (ÑðÃÆðÜ Ò÷îü¨î òǦ ±ð¦, Ùð¨îðÐð ò±ðÜð òǦ ¸ðð¦û) except with Transitive Verbs of incomplete predication, such as, ÑðÃÆðÜð÷ü ¨îð÷ èóÜð ×ðÐðð òÇÚðð ±ðÚðð, Ùð¨îðÐðð÷ü ¨îð÷ »ðð÷üÑðòÀÿÚðð ÙððÐð òâðÚðð ±ðÚðð. With Nouns denoting time, both ¨îð÷ and Ùð÷ü are used. ¨îð÷ is generally attached when the Noun denotes a point of time and Ùð÷ü when it denotes a period. ¨îð÷ = `at` and Ùð÷ü = `during`.
¨îð÷ and Ùð÷ü may both be omiotted iwhen the Noan is qualified:
But òÇÐð Ùð÷ü ¡ð¡ð÷, òÇÐð ¨îð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ¨îÜð÷. ¨îð÷ is, however, not omitted with Nouns denoting days of the week or dates: çðð÷ÙðãððÜ ¨îð÷, Ñððüµð ÃððÜó®ð ¨îð÷ etc. (a) ¨îð÷ (-¦, -è÷ü) is regularly attached to an object receiving greetings, homage, salute, thanks, congratulations, censure, etc. (with or without a Verb requiring two objects): ±ðôÞ ¨îð÷ ÑßÂððÙð, ¡ðÑð¨îð÷ ×ðÏððýá, ýáäãðÜ ¨îð÷ ÏðÐÚðãððÇ, òÏð©¨îðÜ èø ÃðôÙè÷ü! (b) ¨îð÷ (-¦, -è÷ü) is also attached for denoting concern, gain, loss etc. to a person (cf 266). ÃðôÙè÷ü ýçðçð÷ ©Úðð ÙðÃðâð×ð! `how are you concerned with this?,» ¡ðÑð¨îð÷ ©Úðð ÑðÀÿó èø? `why do you bother ?,» ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ âððØð èô¡ð èðòÐð èôýá `Ram gained, lost`. çð÷ (98) çð÷ denotes cause in ×ðµµðð ¨ôîÄð÷ çð÷ ÀÜÃðð èø, and association in ÜðãðÂð ÜðÙð çð÷ âðÀÿð or Ùðð÷èÐð Ùðô»ðçð÷ òÙðâðð. ¨ôîÄðð, ÜðÙð and Ùðøü in these sentences are not objects (towards which action is directed), although in the corresponding English sentences `the child fears the dogs`, `Ravana fought Ram`, and `Mohan met me`, dog, Ravana and me would be treated as objects. ¨îð (101) A Noun or Pronoun + ¨îð and the corresponding forms of Ùð÷Üð, Ãð÷Üð etc. are, in fact, adjectives (eding in- ¡ð). ÜðÙð ¨îó ò¨îÃðð×ð is `Ram-owned book`, and çðð÷Ðð÷ ¨îð ¨îÀÿð is `gold-made bangle`. It is due to the adjectival nature of these ¨îð, Üð forms that they change to ¨îó, Üó, ¨÷î and Ü÷ as all -¡ð ending adjectives do. 315. A peculiar use of ¨îð, Üð, in its oblique form ¨÷î, Ü÷, is met with in such sentences as:- ¦¨î Üð¸ðð ¨÷î ÃðóÐð ÜðòÐðÚððû Æðóü `a king had three queens`, Ùð÷Ü÷ ¦¨î ×ðòèÐð èø `I have one sister`. These ¨÷î or Ü÷ forms are, obviously, not adjectival: the Nouns following them are Feminine. They denote, like the English `have`, experience of the existence of `queens` and `sister` as related to `king` and `I`. This emphasis is not upon the relationship or possession, but upon the fact that they exist. (we can perhaps supply words like ³ðÜ Ùð÷ü, Ñððçð, Úðèðû after Üð¸ðð ¨÷î, Ùð÷Ü÷ etc.) ¦¨î Üð¸ðð ¨îó ÃðóÐð ÜðòÐðÚððû Æðóü, on the other hand, empgasises the relationship and would mean `there were three queens living with or married to a king`. Ùðô»ð÷, Ùðô»ð¨îð÷ (114) With pronouns, the ¨îð÷ forms and ¨îð÷, a pronominal case-sign would have been completely discarded but for its utility in the adjectival use of Pronouns. In such phrases as Ùðô»ð ÇóÐð ¨îð÷ Ðð çðÃððý¦, £Ðð âðð÷±ðð÷ü ¨îð÷ Úðèðû ×ðôâðð¡ð÷. (127), -¦ or -è÷ü forms cannot be used. ¡ÑðÐðð (120½ð ¡ÑðÐðð (reflexive, like Ãð÷Üð, Ùð÷Üð, ÃðôÙèðÜð, £çð¨îð etc.) is an Adjective. It replaces the latter in every case where they refer to the logical subject of the sentence (``the doer``), whether it (the subject) is in the Direct Case, or in the Oblique Case with Ðð÷, or çð÷ (in Passive Voice), or with ¨îð÷ (266-70). In the direct case and oblique with Ðð÷, the logical subject is identical with the grammatical: Ùðøü ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ¨îÜÃðð èõü, ÙðøüÐð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ò¨îÚðð: A logical subject in the oblique with ¨îð÷ or çð÷ is not the grammatical subject-that position is occupied by the logical object: Ùðô»ð¨îð÷ (Ùðô»ð÷) ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð ¡µ¶ð âð±ðÃðð èø, Ùðô»ðçð÷ ¡ÑðÐðð ¨îðÙð Ððèóü èð÷Ãðð. In all the four sentences, ¡ÑðÐðð has replaced Ùð÷Üð because Ùðøü (the person referred to by Ùð÷Üð) is the logical subject in all the four. But in a sentence like Ùðô»ðçð÷ Ùð÷Ü÷ Øððýá Ðð÷ ¨îèð, Ùð÷Ü÷ cannot be replaced by ¡ÑðÐð÷ because Øððýá is the subject here and not Ùðøü. Irregular or loose use of ¡ÑðÐðð is met with in such sentences as £çð÷ ¡ÑðÐð÷ ³ðÜ Øð÷¸ð Çð÷ or £çð÷ £çð¨÷î ³ðÜ Øð÷¸ð Çð÷ `send him to his house.` The former sentence could also mean `send him to your house`, which is really its correct signification, since ¡ÑðÐð÷ must refer to the implied subject `you`. ¡ÑðÐðð is sometimes used for denoting ÃðôÙèðÜð (or Ãð÷Üð)=+èÙððÜð (or Ùð÷Üð) in such sentences as:- Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð ¡ÑðÐðð èó èø `this house is ours (yours and mine)», where the person spoken to is included in ¡ÑðÐðð either, as a matter of fact,or out of friendliness or humility on the part of the speaker (the house actually belonging to the speaker alone). A further extension of the ``friendliness or humility`` is achieved by saying Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð ¡ðÑð¨îð èó èø for Úðè Ùð¨îðÐð Ùð÷Üð èø. Progressive Aspect (170-2) The progressive form represents an act as going on, as progresing or continuing. It cannot, therefore, be used with such verbs as denote by nature, a fact complete in itself. A Verb likr ¸ððÐðÐðð `toknow` has no progressive forms since `know` denotes a fact, ``not something uncompleted, that is, still going on``. Verbs denoting a state or condition, similarly, do not usually employ the progressive form. The Present Tense (188) (a) The terminate forms of the present may refer to Immediate Future: Ùðøü ¡Øðó ÑðüÍè òÙðÐð¾ Ùð÷ü ¸ððÃðð èõû `I (shall) leave within fifteen minutes` etc. The progressive form can similarly be used for Immediate Future: Ùðøü Úðè ×ðð÷»ð Ððèóü £¿ðÃðð `I won`t lift this load`, The Past Tense (194) (a) The simple past can be used for Immediate Future: ¡ðÑð µðòâð¦, Ùðøü ¡Øðó ¡ðÚðð `your proceed, I will follow you`. (b) conditional sentences, the simple past refers to the future,usually implying some (certain and immediate) consequence: ÚòÇ Ãðõ ãðèðü ±ðÚðð, Ãðð÷ òÑð¾÷±ðð `if you go there, you shall be thrashad`, The simple past, when used as future conditional, may have the rare progerssive form ¡ðÃðð èô¡ð, ¸ððÃðð èô¡ð etc. Present Perfect (207) The Present Perfect is really a past tense, but the past act that it represents is always related to the present. It cannot refer to an act which is wholly past and gone. Thus, we can say âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ðÚðð èø `the boy has come` only if the boy is still here, whenever he may have come. But we cannot say âðÀÿ¨îð ¨îâð ¡ðÚðð èø ¡ðøÜ ¡ð¸ð µðâðð ±ðÚðð `the boy ``has come`` yesterday and went to-day` because the boy`s coming can no longer be related to the present: he is gone. Similarly, we can say ØððÜÃð Ùð÷ü ¡äðð÷¨î ¸ðøçð÷ ÙðèðÐð Üð¸ðð èô¦ èøü `there have been great kings like Ashok in India` because India exists and we can relate its past to its present. We cannot, however, say µðÐͱðôÑÃð Ðð÷ Ñðð¾òâðÑðôëð ¨îð÷ Üð¸ðÏððÐðó ×ðÐððÚðð èø `Chandragupta ``has made`` Pataliputra his capital`, because neither Chandragupta nor Pataliputra now exists. It is, therefore, not correct to call this tense `Recent Past` (¡ðçðÐÐð ØðõÃð) as has been done by many grammarians. The present perfect has nothing whatever to do with the recentness or remoteness of a past action. Habitual Past (212) (a) The Habitual Past represents an action as habitually or regularly done in the past. It is neither ``Past Imperfect`` nor ``Progressive Past`` Nor can it, in modern Hindi, refer to a Particular action of the past, for which the simple past (or past progressive Üèð Æðð) must be used. It is not correct to say, for example, ¨îâð ÜðÙð ç¨õîâð ¸ððÃðð Æðð. A few verbs, however, represent action as a fact complete in itself See:- The progressive form represents an act as going on, as progresing or continuing. It cannot, therefore, be used with such verbs as denote by nature, a fact complete in itself. A Verb likr ¸ððÐðÐðð `toknow` has no progressive forms since `know` denotes a fact, ``not something uncompleted, that is, still going on``. Verbs denoting a state or condition, similarly, do not usually employ the progressive form. ), which consequently cannot be habitual. It is only in the case of such verbs that Past Habitual represents a particular action. ãðè ¸ððÐðÃðð Æðð `he knew`. ¸ððÐðÃðð Æðð cannot mean `he used to know`. `knowing a thing` cannot be repeated! The forms ¸ðð Üèð Æðð etc. etc. do not, in fact, represent the progressive aspect of ¸ððÃðð Æðð form which they are apparently made. The similarity is purely formal. ¸ðð Üèð Æðð is really the progressive aspect corresponding to ±ðÚðð See:(a) The Indicative Past, as discussed above, invariably refers to a particular act done in the past. It is never used with reference to an act habitually or regularly done in the past, for which the habitual past is used. The common forms noted above are, obviously, terminate:they represent a particular past action as a whole or as a fact, not as going on. For the progressive, and (a) The above forms are terminate, not progressive: they do not represent the act as going on in the past. Their use as progressive (``Imperfect`` or ``Continuous``) forms is archaic or dialectic. (b) The progressive forms are made, as in the present (190) by replacing the Ãðð by Üèð:
Participles (239) The Present Participle represents an action as proceeding or progressing. It is progressive by nature, although with èø and Æðð, ot assumes a terminate chararacter. The Present Participle, therefore, has no need of a fresh Progressive form. However, a èô¡ð is sometimes attached to a Present Participle in order to make it a clear progressive (241-b and 262-d). The Üèð progressive of Present Participle is a further attempt at expressing the progressive aspect with perfect clarity, and forms like ÇðøÀÿ Üèó ±ððÀÿó `the running train` and ò±ðÜ Üèó ãðæððá `the falling rain` are being used especially in poetry. They are, however, hardly necessary. The Past Participle of a Transitive Verb is passive by nature. It represents an action as completed, and at the same time qualifies the object. (The past participle of an Intransitive Verb, which has no object, qualifies the subject). There is, thus, no need of a fresh passive forms with ±ðÚðð or èô¡ð (272-b) serrve only to make the passive sense more definite. èô¡ð cna be attached to Intransitive Verbs also, but never ±ðÚðð. The ±ðÚðð in µðâðð ±ðÚðð (Intransitive) is not of passive origin. It is the past participle form of the Subsidiary Verb ¸ððÐðð in the compound Verb µðâðð ¸ððÐðð `go away`. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
CHAPTER XXXX | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In the Active Voice (with the subject acting) :- A subject is usually in the direct case, when the Verb must agree with it in Number, Gender and Perosn: Note- (i) With a Transitive Verb of Incomplete Predication, the object always has ¨îð÷. A Verb can be in the Objectival or the Neutral Construction only if it has a past participle. Elsewhere, the Verb is always in the subjectival Construction, whether it is Transitive or Intransitive, complete or incomplete: Ùðøü ®ððÐðð ®ððÃðð èõû, ¨îâðð ò¨îÃðð×ð ÑðÁÿ÷±ðó, Ùððû Ðððø¨îÜ ¨îð÷ ÝÑð¦ Ç÷Ãðó Æðó An Intransitive Verb is always in the Subjectival Construction even when it has a past participle. ÜðÙð ¡ðÚðð, âðÀÿ¨÷î ÇðøÀÿ÷, Òîâð ò±ðÜð With Verbs denoting ``experience`` etc. (266-270), the subject always has ¨îð÷ (or- ¦, — è÷ü in case of Pronouns); and the ``object of experience`` is in the direct case with which the Verb agrees: âðÀÿ¨÷î çð÷ ¨îðÙð Ððèóü ò¨îÚðð ¸ððÃðð, ¨îÙðâðð çð÷ Üð÷¾ó Ððèóü ®ððýá ¸ððÃðó ÜðãðÂð ÙððÜð ±ðÚðð (logical subject not mentioned). The construction thus, is Objectival. Note- (i) In the passive voice, the logical object assumes the role of the grammatical subject (``that about which something has been said``). It cannot, of course, replace the logical subject — `` the doer``. The logical subject is usually mentioned only if abiliity or inability to do something is implied. Only a Transitive Verb can be in the Passive Voice. If a Verb has two objects, the Verb agrees with the primary object, the secondary object being in the oblique case: In the Impersonal Voice (278) the Verb is always in the third person singular masculine form, and the subject if mentioned, has çð÷: | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
CHAPTER XXXXI | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The normal order of words in a senternce is as follows:- I ntransitive Verbs Ùððü Ðð÷ Ðððø¨îÜ ¨îð÷ ÝÑð¦ òǦ Adjectives are placed immediately before the Noun which they qualify (except, of course, when they are used as Predicative words): ¶ð÷¾ð âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ðÚðð; Ùððû Ðð÷ ×ðôÀþÁÿ÷ Ðððø¨îÜ ¨îð÷ Ñððûµð ÝÑðÚð òǦ But Ùðð÷èÐð ×ðèôÃð µðÃðôÜ èø
A word shifted from its normal position qcquires emphasis:
The interrogative ©Úðð is usually placed at the beginning of the sentence.
Rhetorically, or for the sake of emphasis, ©Úðð may be placed immediately after the subject or at the end of the sentence:
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX I | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Prefixes are subsidiary words (prepositions and particles) which are, as a rule, not used independently, but modify the meaning of a word (usually Noun or an Adjective), when attached to it in the beginning. Thus- ±ðôÂð = `virtue`, but ¡ãð±ðôÂð = `fault defect`, Nouns, Adjectives other words to which a perfix has thus been attached are included among Compounds Most of the perfixes in use in Hindi are Tatsama, a few are Tadbhave, while others have been borrowed form Aeabic or persain. The more important perfixes and compounds formed with their help are listed below. The compounds marked as A are Adverbial (App III, 13) and those marked as P are Possessive (App III, 15). Tatsama Prefixes This ¡ is repleced by ¡Ððõ when attached to a word beginning with a vowel: (5) ¡Ñð = `contrary`, `lacking`, `away`: (13) ÑðòÜ = `around`, `fully`, `well`: (14) Ñß = `excess`, `very`, `forward`: (15) ÑßòÃð = `against`, `opposite`, `every`: (16) òãð = `lacking`, `away`, `special`, `various`, `opposite`: (17) çðÙðþ = `with`, `together with`, `altogether`, `good`: (18) çðô = `good`, `easily`: (19) ¡ÐÃðÜþ, ¡ÐÃð: = `inter-`: (20) ¨ôî = `bad`, `evil`: (21) ÑðôÐðÜþ = `agaom`, `re-`: ÑðôÐðòãðáãððè `remarriage` ÑðôÐð¸ðáÐÙð `rebirth`; (22) Ñßð¨þî = `pre-`: (23) çð = `with`, `together with`, `same`: (24) çðè = `with` together with`, `same`: Arabic and Persian Prefixes (2) Ððð = `without`: (3) Ôîó = `per`: (4) âðð = `without`: (5) ×ð÷ = without`: (6) èÜ = `every`: SUFFIXES 6. Suffixes are elements attached to a root, a Pronoun, an Adjectives etc. for forming related words. Some suffixes attached to a root make Nouns or Adjectives, e.g. Other suffixes attached to Nouns or Adjectives etc. form further Nouns or Adjectives: ×ðü±ððâðó `a Bengali` from ×ðü±ððâð `Bengal`; 7. There are thus two kinds of suffixes: (1) those attached to a root and forming Verbal Nouns and Adjectives and (2) those attached to a Noun or Adjective and forming Secondary Nouns or Adjectives. The first variety of suffixe, and the words formed by them are called ¨öîÇÐÃð, Primary Derivatives. The second variety of suffixes is called ÃðòÊÃð or Secondary Suffixes and the words formed by them are called ÃðòÊÃððÐÃð or Secondary Derivatives; The main Primary Suffixes of Hindi are as follows: The root itself is occasionally used as an Abstract Noun: ÙððÜ `beating` from ÙððÜÐðð `to beat`; Sometimes the vowel of the roots is lengthened or modified: µððâð `gait or motion` from µðâðÐðð `to move`; -¡©¨îÀÿ = `doing something habitually or excessively`, forms Adjectives:
(b) However, the root ending in ¤ and ýá shorten their vowels before the -¡ð and, in the case of-ýá roots, a-Úð is inserted between the root and the-¡ð. Thus-
(d) The following are exceptional forms:-
»ð±ðÀÿð `quarrel` from »ð±ðÀÿÐðð `to quarrel`; Some Nouns formed with ¡ðýá denote `cost` or `charges` for the work done: The important Secondary Suffixes of Hindi are as follows:- (2)-¡ðýá forms Abstract and other Nouns (Fem.) from Adjectives: -¡ðçð forms Abstract Nouns (Feminine) from Adjectives: These words denote `sons (or daughters) of maternal uncle` etc. (11) Ñðð similarly makes Abstract Nouns (Masculine) from Nouns or Adjectives which shorten their first vowels: The following Persian suffixes may also be noted: | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
APPENDIX II | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
GENDER FORMS GENDER (77) Gender in Hindi is determined by usage, not by any hard and fast rules. The following points may be noted for guidance: Nouns denoting male beings are Masculine and those denoting fe,a;e neomgs are Fe,omome. (They have the `Natural Gender`). However, the Masculine Nouns ×ðµµð÷ (plural) `children, and âðð÷±ð `people` (always plural) may refer to both male and female persons. ×ðµµðð in the singular may refer to a female child, although the feminine form ×ðµµðó does exist. Nouns denoting certain species of animals, birds, insects etc. are either only Masculine or only Feminine. Masculine:-
For denoting specifically the female species, the word ÙððÇð `female` is prefixed to these Nouns, the gender remaining the same:
Feminine:-
Most of the Nouns ending in -ýá, -ýÚðð, -ãð¾, -è¾ are Feminine:
Genders of Tatsama Nouns are usually retained, the Sanskrit Neuter gender being treated as Masculine. In many cases, however, genders of Tatsama words have been altered by Hindi usage under the influence of their forms, or on the analogy of a Hindi synonym. Thus ¡ðÃÙðð `soul` (¡ðÃÙðÐðþ) and ÙðòèÙðð `greatness` (ÙðòèÙðÐðþ) are Masculine in Sanskrit, but Feminine in Hindi, presumably because of the final ¡ð of these words- which is frequently met with in Tatsama Feminine Nouns (like çðôÃðð `daughter, `ÇÚðð `mercy`, ÑßØðð `lustre`, ¡¸ðð `she-goat` etc). ãÚðò©Ãð `an individual, a person`, is Feminine in Sanskrit, but Masculine in Hindi because `person` is also denoted by ¡ðÇÙðó and ÙðÐðôæÚð which are Masculine. ¡ò±Ðð `fire` is Masculine in Sanskrit, but Feminine in Hindi, because of the final -ý [cf. (f) above]. ÑðôçÃð¨î `book`, similarly, is Neuter in Sanskrit, but Feminine in Hindi because its synonym Ñðð÷Æðó (derived from Sanskrit ÑðôòçÃð¨îð Fem). is Feminine. Formation of Feminine Nouns (a) Words ending in the inherent -¡ or in -¡ð form their Feminine by replacing -or in -¡ð -by -ýá:
(b) Some Nouns ending in — ¡ð, however, form their Feminine (Diminutive) by replacing — ¡ð by — ýÚðð:
Notice that the conjunct consonants in ×ðôÀþÁÿð and ¨ôîÄðð have been simplifed and that the loong vowels in ×ð÷¾ð and µðõèð replaced by the corresponding short ones. Some Masculine Nouns denoting occupation form their Feminine by replacing the final vowel
Some Nouns form their Feminine by adding -Ððó:
Some Nouns add — ¡ðÐðó:
Nouns denoting class or rank form their Feminine by adding — ¡ðýáÐð:
Some Nouns have altogether different words as their Feminine:
Sometimes Masculine Nouns ae formed from Feminine Nouns by adding various suffixes:
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APPENDIX III | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Two or more Hindi words can be combined into one and thus form a compound. The `combining` is, in the main, effected by dropping the case-sings, post-positions, conjunctions, or other words, which denote the relation between the constituent words, which denote the relation between the constituent words of a compound. Thus -
In forming some compounds, however, there is no occasion to drop a connecting word, since none exists. Such, especially is the case when a Prefix or an Adjective is combined with a Noun(to form a Determinative Compound). Thus-
(a) The components of a compound occasionally shorten(or modify) their long vowels. This happens usually to the first component, but sometimes also to the second, or to both. In some cases, a suffix(-¡ð, -ýá. etc.) is also attached to the last member(see :- The same Compound can be a Determinative, or a Possessive, according as the first member qualifies(``determines``) the second member, or as the Compound as a whole qualifies another Noun (outside the Compound). Thus, the compound µðÐÍÙðô®ð, `when it signifies a `moonlike face`, is a Determinative; but when it signifies `moon-faced`, `having a moonlike face`, it is Possessive. Similarly, ¡¸ððÐð or ¡Ðð¸ððÐð may mean either `lack of knowledge, ignorance, inadvertance`, in wchich case, it is a Possive. Such Compounds, however, are only rarely met with in Hindi and there is a general tendency to avoid the possible confusion in meaning by marking, with some suffix like -¡ð or ýá(App. iii, 3-a). Such Possessive Compounds, as may otherwise, be interpreted as Determinatives. Thus-
Thus-
The numerals ¦¨î, Çð÷, òÃðÐð, µððÜ, Ñððûµð, ¶è çððÃð and ¡ð¿, as first members of a compound, are usually modified to ý¨î, Çô-, òÃð(or òÃðÜ-), µððø-, Ñðüµð or(Ñðµð-), ¶-, çðÃð-, and ¡¿- Thus-
All the numerals above ten(except those for 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, and 90) are, of course, compounds (5 below). The compounds can be divided into three main classes:-
Of these, the Determinative Compounds are further sub-divided into:-
The Hindi(or Sanskrit) names for these are as follows:- (1) Co-ordinative ÎÐÎ Co-ordinative(ÎÐÎ) Compounds consist of two(or more) Nouns, Adjectives, or Advebs, which are connected by ¡ðøÜ `and` or by Úðð `or`. The Compounds thus formed have, naturally, the Plural Number but also the Singular when Collective sense is intended. Two(or more) Nouns-
Sometimes the two Nouns are more or lees synonymous with each other:-
Two Adjective(or numerals)-
See:- Certain pairs of numerals also denote approximation: Çð÷-¦¨î `one or two`, Çð÷-ÃðóÐð, ÃðóÐð-µððÜ, µððÜ-Ñððûµð, Ñððûµð-¶: etc. All the numerals above ten(except those for 20, 30, 40 etc.) are Co-ordinative Compounds, with considerable modifications of the original forms of the components. Thus:-
See :The numerals ¦¨î, Çð÷, òÃðÐð, µððÜ, Ñððûµð, ¶è çððÃð and ¡ð¿, as first members of a compound, are usually modified to ý¨î, Çô-, òÃð(or òÃðÜ-), µððø-, Ñðüµð or(Ñðµð-), ¶-, çðÃð-, and ¡¿- Thus-
Two Adverbs(or adverbially) used words)-
Sometimes the same Adverb(or adverbially used word) is repeated(with an intensification of the meaning):
Occasionally, the first component of such(repetitive) Compounds attaches an(¡ð÷ü), when the meaning is variously modified.:
In a few cases, the case-sign çð÷ (98) is placed between the two repeated words:
Repetitive Compounds of indefinite Pronouns, and of Adverbs formed from them are made by placing the Negative particle Ðð between the two words. These Compounds have a pronounced indefinite force:-
II — Determinative Compounds Determinative Compounds are characterised by the `determining` or, in some way, qualifying of the second member by the first member. These, as already noted, are of three kinds-Dependent, Descriptive and Adverbial. II(a) Dependent Determinatives In a Dependent Determinative(ÃðÃÑðôÝæð), the first member is dependent on the second, functioning as an attribute (not as an Adjective) of the latter. In the pre-compound form, the first member is always in the Oblique form. Thus-
Some dependent Determinatives have for their second member a Verbal derivative [App. i 7(a)ÿ] which is not used independently, (These are called £ÑðÑðÇ ÃðÃÑðôÝæð). Thus-
II(b) Descriptive Determinatives In Descriptive Determinative(¨îÙðáÏððÜÚð) Compounds, the first member describes the second. The first member, thus, is an Adjective or a word used as an Adjective). Thus-
If the `first` member is a numeral, a Descriprive Determinative is usually treated as a collective Noun, and is calledòαðô :-
The components sometimes modify their form:-
A Descriptive Determinative sometimes signifies comparison between the two members:-
A large number of Descriptive Determinative Compounds are formed with the help of prefixes. These have already been illustrated under the discussion on Prefixes(Appendix I). Thus-
III(c) Adverbial Determinatives Some prefixes form Compounds which are used as Adverbs. Such Compounds are called Adverbial Determinatives (¡ãÚðÚðóØððãð). These have already been illustrated under the discussion on Prefixes(Appendix I). Thus
In some Adverbial Compounds, the first member is an Adverb used as a Prefix. Thus -
Note: The name `Adverbial Compound` is restricted to the variety discussed above. Compounds of Adverbs, discussed in App. iii, 5(c) -(g), are `Co-ordinative`. III Possessive Compounds A. Possessive Compound(×ðèôãßóòè) is always adjectival in nature, referring to a person or thing not denoted, severally, by either of the members of the Compound. Thus -
Possessive Compounds, as well as Determinative Compounds, can be formed with the help of Prefixes. These have already been illustrated under the discussion on Prefixes.(Appendix I). Thus-
The same Compound can be a Determinative, or a Possessive, according as the first member qualifies(``determines``) the second member, or as the Compound as a whole qualifies another Noun (outside the Compound). Thus, the compound µðÐÍÙðô®ð, `when it signifies a `moonlike face`, is a Determinative; but when it signifies `moon-faced`, `having a moonlike face`, it is Possessive. Similarly, ¡¸ððÐð or ¡Ðð¸ððÐð may mean either `lack of knowledge, ignorance, inadvertance`, in wchich case, it is a Possive. Such Compounds, however, are only rarely met with in Hindi and there is a general tendency to avoid the possible confusion in meaning by marking, with some suffix like -¡ð or ýá(App. iii, 3-a). Such Possessive Compounds, as may otherwise, be interpreted as Determinatives. Thus-
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APPENDIX IV | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Marks of Punctuation (a) Hindi has the same marks of Punctuation as English, except that for the Full Stop (.) marking the end of a sentence, a vertical stroke (/) is used. However, after initials and abbreviated words, the Full Stop is either etained, or replaced by a cipher (.). Thus, Ùðø ãðèðû ±ðÚðð Æðð |; Ððð. Ñß. = ÐððÜðÚðÂðÑßçððÇ ¦Ùð. ¦. = M. A. (b) The vertical stroke is also used for marking the end of the first hemistish (half-verse). For marking the end of the verse itself, two vertical strokes may be used. In case the verses are numbered, the number is placed between two double strokes at the end. Thus- òÇãðçð ¨îð ¡ãðçððÐð çðÙðóÑð Æðð Some modern writers prefer the Full Stop to the cipher as well as to the vertical stroke, thus adopting the English usage in full. The rest of the punctuation-marks, viz., comma, semi-colon. colon, dash, hyphen, single and double inverted commas, apostrophe and brackets, are used as in English. However, the colon (:) is usually avoided, lest it should be confused with the visarga sign (2-e). Day of the Week etc. the days of the week are name as follows:-
The months of the year are namded as follows:- Sanskrit:- µðøëð, ãðøäðð®ð, ¸ð÷æ¿, ¡ðæððÁ åðãðÂð, ØððÍÑðÇ, ¡ðòäãðÐð,¨îðòÃðá¨î ¡ð±ßèðÚðÂð or Ùðð±ðáäðóæðá, Ñððøæð, Ùðð³ð, Òîðâ±ðôÐð. Hindi:- µðøÃð, ×ðøçðð®ð, ¸ð÷¿, ¡ðæððÁÿ, çððãðÐð, ØððÇð÷ü, ©ãððÜ, ¨îðòÃð¨î, ¡±ðèÐð, Ñðõçð, Ùðð³ð.Òîð±ðôÐð. The era prevalent amongst the Hindi-speaking people is that of King Vikrama (CalleòãðªîÙð çððãðüÃð) which differs form the Chirstian era by +57 years. The new year begins on the 16th day of µðøëð. (a) The unit of weight is çð÷Ü, `seer` which is divided into sixteen parts called ¶¾ðû¨î. is a Ñððãð. Forty seers equals one ÙðÐð `maund`. A seer is appoximately two pounds. (b) For weighing gold, silver etc., as well as medicines, the following weights are used:- eight ®ðçð®ðçð = one µððãðâð The unit for linear measurement is ±ð¸ð = `yard` which (apart from being divided into feet and inches) is divided into sixteen parts called ò±ðÜè (literally `knot` or `joint`) Half a ±ð¸ð = a èðÆð `hand`, aad half a èðÆð = a ×ððòâðäÃð or ×ððâððüÇ `span (9 inches`). A ò±ðÜè (1/16 yard) is divided into twentyfour parts called ¸ððø `barley grains`; eight ¸ððø makes an ¡ü±ðôâð `finger`. Areas are measured (besiedes in square yard, feet and inches) in ×ðó³ðð, ò×ðçðãðð (or ò×ðçãðð) and ò×ðçðãððüçðó (or ò×ðçãððüçðó); 20 ò×ðçðãððüçðó = one ò×ðçðãðð, 31/40 ×ðó³ðð = one ¦«Àÿ Time is measured (besides in hours, minutes and seconds) in ÑðèÜ, ³ðÀÿó, Ñðâð and ¡êðÜ. A ÑðèÜ (Sanskrit ÑðèÜ) is 1/8 of day + night, i.e. 3 hours. A ³ðÀÿó is 1/60 of day + night, i.e. 24 minutes, and is itself divied into 60 parts which are called Ñðâð Each Ñðâð is also divided into 60 parts which are called ¡êðÜ. Thus- an ¡êðÜ = 24/60 (=2/5) seconds, a day+ night = 60 ³ðÀÿó = 24 hours. All astronomical calculations are still made with the help of the above division of time. Note: 6 to 8 are now obsolete India has since switched over to the metric system of weights and measures and follows decimal system of currency. However, the old system has been mentioned hrer of information only. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
APPENDIX V | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Vowels :
Matras :
Consonants :
Figures:
Explanations: The long vowel ¥ is no longer in vogue in Hindi, it has, therefore, not been included in the list of vowels. Conjunct letters: Consonants with verrical line (®ðÀÿó Ñððýá): ®ð ±ð ³ð µð ¸ð »ð ½ð Âð Ãð Æð Ïð Ðð Ñð ×ð Øð Ùð Úð âð ãð äð æð êð ìð Conjunct letters, in case of these consonants, should be formed by removing the vertical line, e.g. ®ÚððòÃð, âð±Ðð, òãð³Ðð, ¨îµµðð, ¶¸¸ðð, ãÚð½¸ðÐð, Ðð±ðÂÚð, ¨ôîÃÃðð, Ñð³Úð, ÏãðòÐð, ÐÚððçð, ÑÚððçð, òÀ××ðð, çðØÚð, ÜÙÚð, äðÚÚðð, £ââð÷®ð, ãÚððçð, äâðð÷¨î, Üðæ¾àóÚð, çãðó¨öîÃð, ÚðêÙðð | Other consonants: The present form of the conjunct ¨î and Òî should continue, e.g. çðüÚðô©Ãð, Ñð©¨îð, ÇÓÃðÜ (not as çðüÚðô©Ãð, Ñð©¨îð, ÇÓÃðÜ) The conjunct forms of ´ ¶ ¾ ¿ À Á and Ç should be made by adding the èâðþ symbol ( þ), e.g. ãðð´ÙðÚð âð¾þ¾õ ×ðôÀþÁð òãðÇþÚðð etc. (not as ãðð´þÙðÚð âð¾þ¾õ ×ðôÀþÁð òãðÌðð) All the three old formsof conjunct Ü should continue; as ÑߨîðÜ, ÏðÙðá, Üðæ¾à å should be written in the old style as in åó. Conjunct form of Ãðþ and Ü should be written as âð insotead of ëð (Later, the form ëð as in vogue earlier, has also been approved). Conjunct coonsonant with è may also be formed with èâðþ symbol besides that in vogue e.g. òµðéÐð and òµðèþÐð (but not òµðéÐð). The old style of conjunct forms of letters may continue in Sanskrit text. All other symbols or marks of punctuation which are either used or have naturalised themselves into Hindi and as approved by the Government of India on the advice of experts in the field shall continue to be used as before. A few instances are:- (i) The use of headline. (a) Except for the full-stop, all punctuation marks as current in English e.g.- _,;?!. (The symbol for visarga should also serve as a colon) For full-stop (.), a vertical line (|) should be used. The following symbols be incorporated in the typewriter keyboard, as far as possible ( ü û) should continue as in vogue. Under the presidential orders issued from time to time, except for some specified purposes, only the internatinal numerals are to be used in all official publications in Hindi. International numerals: 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 With& view to equipping Devanagari Script for transcription of the modern Indian languages, the following additional symbols have been fixed for expressing the special sounds of regional languages for which no symbols existed in Devanagari Script. A. Vowels Letters Matras (i) Short ¦ and short ¡ð÷ of the four South ¦ù ¡ð` ÷ ð÷ Indian Languages& Kashmiri. (ii) Unrounded vowels of Kashmiri ¡ü ¡ðü ü ðü £ ü ¤ ü üô üõ (iii) Very short ý and £ sounds occuring only ý £ ò ô finally in some Kashmiri words. The diacritical marks recommended at (ii) and (iii) above may be used for other languages also where necessary. Consonants Kashmiri Chavarga ( µð ¶ ¸ð »ð ). These may be used in case of Telugu etc. also, where necessary. Sindhi Implosives ±ð ¸ð Ç ×ð ú for Tamil Ð and ÿæðÿ for Malayalam Ü for Tamil and Malayalam& Telugu, Kannada Ü Ü for Malayalam Ðð for Tamil and Malayalam alveolar Urdugraphemes: «î ®ÿð ²ð ºð »ÿð Õî | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
APPENDIX VIII | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
STANDARDISATION OF HINDI SPELLING A set of rules for standard Hindi spelling, as formulated by an Expert Comittee appointed by Government for the purpose and as approved by the Government is given below: The case-signs in Hindi should always be written as separate words, except in case of pronouns where they should be tagged on to the stems (ÑßðòÃðÑðòǨî); e.g. 1. ÜðÙð Ðð÷, 2 çëðó ¨îð÷, 3. £çðçð÷, 4. Ùðô»ð¨îð÷. But keeping in view the convenience of the printing press, thje case-signs may be tagged on to the nouns also in journals and periodicals. Exception: Where pronouns have two case-signs at a time, the first should be tagged on to the stem while the second should be written separately; e.g. 1. £çð¨÷î òâð¦, 2. ýçðÙð÷ü çð÷. When the particles èó, Ãð¨î etc. fall in between a pronoun and its case-sign be written as a separate word; e.g. ¡ðÑð èó ¨÷î òâð¦, Ùðô»ð Ãð¨î ¨îð÷. In case of compound verbs, all subsidiaries should be written separately; e.g. 1. ÑðÁÿð ¨îÜÃðð èø, 2. ¡ð çð¨îÃðð èø. The indeclinables Ãð¨î, çððÆð etc. should always be written as separate words; e.g. ¡ðÑð¨÷î çððÆð, Úðèðû Ãð¨î. The absolutive forms should always be written as single words, e.g. òÙðâðð¨îÜ, ®ðð-Ñðó¨îÜ, Üð÷-Üð÷¨îÜ. In case of co-ordinative compounds, hyphen should be placed in between the constituent words; e.g. ÜðÙð-âðêÙðÂð, òäðãð-ÑððãðáÃðó-çðüãððÇ. Hyphen should be placed before particles like çðð, ¸ðøçðð e.g. ÃðôÙð-çðð, ÜðÙð-¸ðøçðð, µðð¨õî-çð÷ Ãðó®ð÷. In case of dependent determinative compounds, hyphen should be used only to avoid risk of ambiguity e.g. Øðõ-ÃðÄãð. Where the use of glidal Úð,ãð is optional, it may be avoided, i.e., in the words like ±ð¦-±ðÚð÷, Ððýá-ÐðÚðó, èô¡ð-èôãðð etc. using only the former (vowel) forms. This rule is applicable in all cases viz., verbal, adjectival and underclinable forms. ¦÷ ( ø) and ¡ðø (ðø) express two distinct sounds in Hindi. First as in words like èø, ¡ðøÜ etc. and the other in words like ±ðãðøÚðð, ¨îðøãðð etc. The use of these symbols to express these two distinct sounds should continue. Modifications like ±ðãðÚÚðð, ¨îããðð etc. are unnecessary. ÃðÃçðÙð words borrowed from Sanskrit should ordinarily be spelt in their original Sanskrit form. But where the use of Hal sign (right slanting stroke/) has already discontinued in Hindi, words like ÙðèðÐð (Ððþ), òãðÇþãððÐð (Ððþ), it need not be revived. where the fifth letter of a class of consonants (ãð±ðá) precedes any of the four remaining letters of the same class, the ¡ÐðôçãððÜ should be invariably used instead of the fifth letter; e.g. ¡üÃð, ¡ÐÚð; ±ðü±ðð, ãðð´ÙðÚð; çðüÑððǨî, çððÙÚð, çðÙÙðòÃð. Use of nasalisation sign ( û) (µðüÍòü×ðÇõ) is sometimes necessary to avoid ambiguity in meaning and to mark out distinction between words like èüçð, èûçð, ¡ü±ðÐðð, ¡û±ðÐðð, etc. But where it is difficult to write or print µðüÍòü×ðÇô must necessarily be used in poetry to maintain metric sequence. Similarly, in the primers for children where introduction of µðüÍòü×ðÇô is Jesired, µðüÍòü×ðÇô must invariably be used e.g. Ððèóû, Ùð÷ û, Ùðø û ÐðûÇÐðüÇÐð etc. Words of Arabo-Persian origin which have been adapted in Hindi vocabulary should continue to be used as such e.g. ¸ðÞÜ. But where their use in innate form is desired, dots (Ððô©Ãð÷) must be used to denote alien origin e.g. Üðºð, Ðððºð. Where use of English words with half-open ¡ðø sound is desird, ¡ÊáµðüÍ symbol should be placed over ¡ð or ð as in ¡ðùÐðÜ÷Üó and Àðù©¾Ü. If Sanskrit words with òãðçð±ðá (:) have to be used in Hindi in their ÃðÃçðÙð form, the òãðçð±ðá should be placed appropriately as in Çô:®ððÐðôØðõòÃð. But if such words are to be used in their modified (ÃðÇþØðãð) form, òãðçð±ðá can easily be omitted as in Çô®ð-çðô®ð ¨÷î çððÆðó. Explanatory notes with illustrations A growing language-Hindi is day-by-day ensuring its status as the official language of the Union. It is heartening to picture Hindi as truly pan-Indian in form and content with closer and closer contact with its counterparts, their literature and the people who wield them for varied aims. Incidence of parallel forms is a natural phenomenon in a living language. It is inadvisable, therefore, to fetter its course with rigid regimen and grammatical regulation. Dictums can hardly force particular forms of a parallel labyrinth in currency and opinions must continue to differ on the choice of one or the other. Nonetheless, conformity to the rules of grammar, syntax and spelling, is the most to be desired, provided it does no hamper progress, nor does it come in the way of effulgence of a language. Taking all this into account, the Committee-Hindi Varani Samiti-had a catholic approach in formulating principles for standardising Hindi spelling. The rules emodied in the text of this pamphlet are elaborated here with a few more illustrations. The rule is clear. The case-sitgns in all types of nouns should be written separately from the stems (ÑßðòÃðÑðòǨî) e.g. ÜðÙð Ðð÷, ÜðÙð ¨îð÷, ÜðÙð çð÷ etc. and çëðó Ðð÷, çëðó ¨îð÷, çëðó çð÷ etc. But in case of pronouns the case-signs should not be written as separate words but should be joined with the stems e.g. £çðÐð÷, £çð¨îð÷, £çðçð÷ etc. The concession and the exception to this rule is also clear and needs no explanation. The second rule is also clear. Some more examples under this rule are: ¸ððÚðð ¨îÜÃðð èø, ®ððÚðð ¨îÜÃðð èø, ¸ðð çð¨îÃðð èø, ¨îÜ çð¨îÃðð èø, ò¨îÚðð ¨îÜÃðð Æðð, ÑðÁÿð ¨îÜÃðð Æðð, ®ð÷âðð ¨îÜ÷±ðð, ³ðõÙðÃðð Üè÷±ðð etc. The third rule needs a few more examples for clarification. There are several tuypes of indeclinables in Hindi that denote various types of feelings and senses, e.g. ¡ðè, ¡ð÷è, ¡èð, ¦÷, èó, Ãðð÷, çðð÷, Øðó, Ðð, ¸ð×ð, Ãð×ð, ¨î×ð, Úðèðû, ãðèðû, ¨îèðû, çðÇð, ©Úðð, åó, ¸ðó, Ãð¨î, ØðÜ, Ùððëðð, çððÆð, ò¨î, ò¨üîîÃðô, Ùð±ðÜ, âð÷ò¨îÐð, µððè÷ Úðð, ¡Æðãðð, ÃðÆðð, ÚðÆðð, ¡ðøÜ etc. Some indeclinables are preceded by case-signs also e.g. ¡×ð çð÷, Ãð×ð çð÷, Úðèðû çð÷, ãðèðû çð÷, çðÇð çð÷ etc. The rule lays down that the indeclinables be written as separate words e.g. ¡ðÑð èó ¨÷î òâð¦, Ùðô»ð Ãð¨î ¨îð÷, ¡ðÑð¨÷î çððÆð, ±ð¸ðÿ ØðÜ ¨îÑðÀÿð, Ç÷äð ØðÜ, ÜðÃð ØðÜ, òÇÐð ØðÜ, ãðè ýÃðÐðð ØðÜ ¨îÜ Ç÷, Ùðô»ð÷ ¸ððÐð÷ Ãðð÷ Çð÷, ¨îðÙð Øðó Ððèóü ãðÐðð, Ñðµððçð ÝÑðÚð÷ Ùððëð etc. The honorific indeclinables åó and ¸ðó should also be written as separate word e.g. åó åóÜðÙð ¸ðó, åó ¨îÐèøÚððâððâð ¸ðó, ÙðèðÃÙðð ¸ðó etc. Indeclinables such as ÑßòÃð, Ùððëð, ÚðÆðð etc. in compounds should not be written separately e.g. ÑßòÃðòÇÐð, ÑßòÃðäðÃð, ÙððÐðãðÙððëð, òÐðòÙðÄðÙððëð, ÚðÆððçðÙðÚð, ÚðÆðð÷òµðÃð etc., for the constituents compounded together are treated as a single compound word. While following the provisions of this rule, the Committee have also provided for a hyphen in between the constituents in cases of co-ordinative compounds and dependent determinative compounds to avoid risk of ambiguity. Rules 4, 5 and 6 are clear. The hyphen is only for clarity. Some examples of co-ordinative compounds are: Ç÷®ð-Ü÷®ð, µððâð-µðâðÐð, èûçðó-Ùð¸ðð¨î, âð÷Ðð-Ç÷Ðð, ÑðÁÿÐðð-òâð®ðÐðð, ®ððÐðð-ÑðóÐðð, ®ð÷âðÐðð-¨õîÇÐðð, etc. Hyphen may be used in between determinative compounds to avoid risk of ambiguity. For example, if a hyphen is not used in the compound word Øðõ-ÃðÄãð (elements or science of earth), it is likely to be confused with ØðõÃðÄãð meaning `the state of being as element`. In the case of common dependent determinatives as in words like ÜðÙðÜð¸Úð, Üð¸ð¨ôîÙððÜ, ±ðü±ðð¸ðâð, ±ßðÙðãððçðó, ¡ðÃÙðèÃÚðð etc., a hyphen is not necessary at all. Rule& forbids the use of glidal ¡Ü-¨Ü where it is optional. This prohibition is applicable in respect of all types of words in all cases e.g. Rule 9 is clear. Rule 10 directs that the words borrowed from Sanskrit should ordinarily be spelt in their original Sanskrit form. Accordingly, it would be improper to spell ×ßèþÙðð as ×ßéÙðð, òµðèþÐð as òµðÐè, £¥Âð as £òÜÂð etc. Similarly, wrong spellings of words as ±ßèóÃð, Èæ¾ãÚð, ÑßÇòäðáÐðó, ¨îðòÐÃðãððÐðþ, ¡ÃÚððòÏð¨î, ¡ÐððòÏð¨îðÜ etc. are not acceptable. wherever èâðþ sign has dropped out of use in words like ÙðèðÐð (Ððþ), òãðÇþãððÐð (Ððþ) etc., it need not be revived. Rule 11 relates to the use of `fifth letters` (ÑðüµðÙððêðÜ) and ¡ÐðôçãððÜ. where fifth letter of a class of consonants (ãð±ðá) precedes any of the four remaining letters of the same class, the ¡ÐðôçãððÜ and not the fifth letter should be used; e.g. ±ðü±ðð, ¾ü¾ð, çðüÑððǨî, çðüÏðþÚðð, ÏðüÏðð etc. If the fifth letter precedes any letter of a class (ãð±ðá) other than its own or repeats itself, it does not change into an ¡ÐðôçãððÜ but remains as it is, e.g. ãðð´ÙðÚð, ¡ÐÚð, çðÙÙðòÃð, òµðÐÙðÚð, £ÐÙðô®ð etc. Forms like ãððüÙðÚð, çðüÙðòÃð, òüµðÙðÚð, £üÙðô®ð etc. are incorrect. The Committee has sympathetically considered the question of the use of µðüÍòü×ðÇô (a nasal sound expressed by a point in the middle of a digit over a letter) and has provided for its application where necessary. The rule laid down in this respect is quite clear. Rule 13 and 14 dealing with spellings of Hindi words of English, Arabic persain or any other foreign origin and their peculiar sounds, do not require explanation. However, it is not out of context to reproduce here the recommendation on transliteration of international terms into Devanagari Script, made by the Seminar on the Linguistics of Scientific Terminology organised by the Commission for Scientific and Technical Terminology in August-September, 1962 which runs thus: ``The transliteration of English terms should not be made so complex as to necessitate the introduction of new signs and symbols in the present Devanagari characters. The Devanagari rendering of English terms should aim at maximum approximation to the standard English pronunciation with such modifications as are prevalent in the educated circle in India.`` The same recommendation may apply to words adopted from other languages also. Some Hindi words have two parallel forms in currency, both of which have been generally recognised by scholars in the field, e.g. ±ðÜÇÐð>±ðÇáÐð, ±ðÜÙðó>±ðÙðóá, ×ðÜÒî>×ðÒáî, ×ðÜÃðÐð>×ðÃðáÐð, ò×ðâð¨ôîâð>ò×ðâ¨ôîâð, çðÜÇó>çðÇóá, ¨ôîÜçðó>¨ôîçðóá, ØðÜÃðó>ØðÃðóá, ×ðÜÇðäÃð>×ðÇðáäÃð, ãððòÑðçð> ãððÑðçð, ¡ð®ðóÜ>¡ðò®ðÜ, ¦¨îðýá>ý¨îðýá, Çð÷×ððÜð>Çô×ððÜð etc. Uniformity in the spelling of such words was not considered essential. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||