Реферат: The Ind. Eur family of languages. Features common to most of the ie languages

Вопрос №1
The Ind.-Eur family of languages. Features common to most of the IE languages.

1)The Indo-European Family
The languages brought into relationship by recent or progressive differentiation from their parent language are called a family of languages.

The term Indo European (IE) suggests the geographical extent of the family. The parent tongue, from which the IE languages sprang had become scattered and divided before the dawn of history. The surviving languages show different degrees of similarity. They fall into 11 groups.

Balto-Slavic

Indian

Iranian

Hellenic

Germanic

Italic

Celtic

Armenian

Albanian

and 2 dead languages

Tocharian (Тохарский)

Hittite (Хеттский)

The Celts at the beginning of our era formed one of the most extensive groups of the IE family. They were found in Gaul, Spain, Northern Italy, Western Germany and British Isles. In fact they occupied the greater part of the Western Europe and today they are found in the remoter parts of France and the British Isles, where we find Gaelic, spoken in the highlands, Irish, spoken in Ireland, Welsh, spoken in Wales and Manx, which was used in the Isle of Man before the WW2.

The main language of the Italic group – Latin (the language of Rome). As Romans colonized Gael, Spain, Northern Africa, Islands in the Mediterranean, Latin spread into that regions. The native population adopted Latin and modified it in accordance with their speech habits. Today the various languages that had developed from Latin are called Romanic.

Portuguese

French

Italian

Spanish


II. Indo European Features (IEFs)

Every group of languages shares some linguistic features with related groups and also has its own specific features. Thus Common Germanic (CG) Has IEFs on the on hand and on the other specifically Germanic features. And in its turn English has IEFs, CGFs and specifically English features.

The earliest IE languages display an identical grammatical structure. All of them were synthetical inflectional languages. There appeared in them identical fundamental words which are not likely to be picked up in the course of migration. They are:

words of family relations (módor, bróðor, fæder)

names of plants, animals and parts of the body (дерево – trec, cordis - heart)

basic numerals (three - три)

certain words, though with considerable change in meaning (sittan – sit, etan – eat, witen - ведать)

Вопрос №2

The Germanic languages and their classification


The common point which the language of the Germanic group had had before they were differentiated is known as Proto-Germanic (PG) or Common Germanic. At that time the last few centuries BC the Germanic tribes inhabited the western coast of the Baltic Sea and the southern part of the Scandinavian Peninsulas.

The languages that descended from PG fall into 3 groups:

East Germanic,

North Germanic,

West Germanic.



^ The East Germanic Languages
The principal language is Gothic. By the 3d century of our era, the Goths had left the region of Vistula where they lived and moved to the shore of the Black Sea. There in the 4th century they were christianized by a missionary called Ulfilas. For that purpose he translated into the Gothic language the gospels and some other parts of the New Testament. And our knowledge of the Gothic language is almost holy due to this translation.

It is of great importance to the study of the German languages, as it is the earliest record in the Germanic language. It helps to reconstruct the PG languages.

For a time Goths played a very important part in the history of Europe. When the great migration of people began they moved to the west, conquered Italy and founded a kingdom there, reached Spain. But in those countries they were absorbed by the native population and their language gave way to Latin.

The Gothic language survived the longest in the Crimea where some traces of it were noted down in the 16th century.

Some of the EG tribes are:

Vandalic

Burgundian

But our knowledge of these dialects is confined to some place names only.

^ The North Germanic Languages
NG languages are found in Scandinavia and Denmark.

Runic inscriptions of the 3d century of our era preserve the earliest traces of the language. In its oldest form the early Scandinavian language is known as Old Norse (ON). From the 11th century dialectal differences became noticeable and today NG languages are represented by:

the Swedish language,

the Norwegian language,

the Icelandic language,

the Danish language,

the Faeroes language.

The most interesting is Old Icelandic language, which appeared as a result of the colonization of Ireland by Norwegians in the 9th century. It is important because it has preserved heroic literature, which is considered unsurpassed (непревзойденный) among Germanic people. The most important are:

“Edda” – 9th – 10th centuries

“Eofa” – a collection of poems that describes exploits of some traditional heroes.

^ The West Germanic Languages
WG languages are divided into:

low languages,

high languages.

In old times as Low German we distinguish

Old Saxon

Old Franconian

Old Frisian

Old English

Old Saxon became the main constituent part of modern Low German. Old Franconian became the basis of modern Dutch (spoken in Holland) and Flemish (spoken in Belgium). These 2 are treated now as the Netherlandish. Its offshoot is Africaans. Frisian survived in the Dutch province of Friesland and some islands along the coast.

As to ^ High German it is the literal language of Australia, German, Switzerland, Luxemburg. From High German dialects there developed Yiddish.


Вопрос №3 Phonetic features common to the Germanic languages


Word Stress

In the IE parent language the stress was musical and was not fixed. In Germanic languages it became force or expiratory and it became fixed on the 1st root syllable. Thus in Modern English we have: ‘like, ‘likeness, dis’like, un’like. Other syllables of the word remained unstressed and as a result were gradually weakened and even lost. This led to the simplification of word-structure and the shortening of the word.

The process, which began in PG, continued through the history of the English language and resulted in the considerable simplification of the structure of words.


Vowels

The quality and quantity of the vowels depended on the stress. In stressed position there was an opposition of vowels in quantity and quality, that is long and short vowels were possible in stressed position.

Cynin – king

Mys – mice

In an unstressed position this opposition was lost. Long vowels became short and short vowels were reduced and very frequently lost. But the contrast between long and short vowels was supported by the different directions of their changes. The original IE long vowels tended to become closer and short vowels tended to become more open.

Мать

Módor

Брат

Bróðor




IE sound

merged into

PG sound

a

>

o

o

>

a

ночь

>

naht

мочь

>

Ma an


Тот - ata > ðæt


IE

merged into

PG

a

>

o

o










a

>

a

o


This merging (of IE a, o) also occurred in diphthongs


IE

merged into

PG

ai

>

ai

oi










au

>

au

ou

^ Вопрос №4 The peculiarities of the Germanic consonants as compared to that of the IE languages. (Grim’s law, Verner’s law)

Consonants
PG consonants.

The most remarkable distinctive feature of the Germanic group – the Germanic sound shift. (1ое передвижение согласных). The opposition of consonants in the Germanic languages is the same as in other European languages (voice - voiceless). There is no direct correspondence between certain consonants in the Germanic languages and those found in other European languages of the same word.


IE word




PG word

voiceless plosives became fricatives

pes, pedis

p>f

fot (стопа)

полный


t> .

full

ты

u

тот

ðæt

cors

k>h

heart

voiced plosives became voiceless

слабый

b>p

slepan

дерево

d>t

tree (ME)

едо

g>k

Ic

нагой

naked (ME)



This correspondence was explained by Jacob Grimm in the early 19th century and is known as the ^ Grimm’s Law. After a long and careful investigation he came to the conclusion that there exists a certain consonant regularity in the chain of consonants. In fact, he was not the first. The first was the Danish scientist Rask, but Grimm was the 1st to call it a la, a typical specific feature inherent in all the Germanic languages.

All the plosives of IE shifted into GLs in 3 stages (акты)

According to the 1st act of the consonant shift, instead of the IE voiceless plosives (aspirated and non-aspirated) there occurred voiceless fricative consonants in the GLs.

Old Greek (OG) – pente Goth (G) – fimf OE – fif

Пена ME – foam OE – fam

Три OG – trios G – reis OE – rie NE - three

There were some exceptions to the law

IE voiceless plosives did not change into voiceless fricatives in Germanic when they were presided by the consonant “s”.

sp, st, sk

Voiceless fricative consonant “s” always prevented any change of a voiceless plosive following it.

If 2 voiceless plosives stood together, the 1st shifted and the 2nd remained plosive.

Lat – octo Goth – ahtan OE – eahto ME - eight

According to the 2nd act IE voiced non-aspirated plosives became voiceless plosives. The way of pronouncing a consonant changed, but the place of articulation remained the same.

Два – two

Duo – tuai

Болото - pool

According to the 3d act IE aspirated voiced plosives became voiced fricatives.

IE




PG

bh

>




dh

>




gh

>

g

However, under certain conditions these voiced fricatives became voiced plosives




>

b




>

d

g

>

g

Aspirated voiced plosives survived only in Old Indian.

The changes that came about according to the 1st act took place earlier than those of the 2nd, because then the voiceless plosives that appeared under the 2nd act would have changed into the fricatives. There are some reasons to believe that the voiceless plosives changed earlier than the voiced plosives. This can be proved by the fact that the voiceless plosives that appeared in the GL did not change into fricatives later on.


But there are some exceptions to the Law:

It has been observed that in some words, where according to the shift, one would expect to find a voiceless fricative in Germanic, a voiced fricative or a voiced plosive is found instead.

Lat – pater OE - fæder

It was explained by the Danish scholar Carl Verner (закон Вернера) in the 2nd part of the 19th century.
Verner’s Law
In ancient GLs at that time the stress was free (or movable), fricative consonants became voiced.

[ ] > [ð] depending on their position in the word and depending on the stress also.

All the Germanic fricative consonants became voiced between vowels if the immediately preceding vowel was unstressed and the following vowel was stressed. After the voicing was complete the stress was shifted to the 1sy syllable.

Later on in the GLs [ð] became [d]. this phenomenon is called hardening.

Fæder < faðar



Вопрос №5

Principal features of the grammatical structure of the Germanic languages (noun, adj, verb)


1) Grammatical structure

Both PG and the OG languages had a synthetic grammatical structure which means that the relationships between the parts of the sentence were shown by the forms of the words rather by their position or by auxiliary words.

^ The grammatical forms were built in the synthetic way: by means of inflections, sound interchanges and suppletion.

2)Nouns and adjectives.

Most nouns and adjectives in PG had stem-forming suffixes; according to stem-suffixes they fell into groups or classes: a-stems, i-stems, o-stems. This grouping accounts for the formation of different stem-suffixes, each group of nouns acquired a different set of endings.

^ 3)Verbs.

The bulk of the verbs in PG and in the OG languages fall into two large groups called strong and weak. The main difference between these groups lies in the means of building the principal forms: The Pr.tense, The Past tense and Participle II.

The strong verbs built their principal forms with the help of root vowel interchanges plus certain grammatical endings.

The weak verbs are a specifically Germanic innovation because the device used in building their principal forms is not found outside the Germanic group. They built the Past tense and Participle II by inserting a special suffix between the root and the ending. The dental suffix d is a marker or the Past and Part II; it is preceded by remnants of the old stem-suffixes: -i- in the Gothic domida, –o- in the OE macode. The weak verbs formed several classes with different stem-suffixes.


Вопрос №6 Periods in the history of English


The evolution of English in the 15 hundred years of its existence has been an unbroken one, but within it it’s possible to single out 3 main periods:

Old English (OE)

Middle English (ME)

New English (NE)


Old English
The historical background
It began in the 5th century, when the German tribes (Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians) settled in the British Isles. Originally the social and economical system was tribal and slave owning, which gradually developed into a feudal one. Accordingly tribal dialects developed into local ones. Geographically it covers the territory of the so-called English Proper. The main historical events are:

the introduction of Christianity;

the Scandinavian invasion.
Word-stock (WS)
Originally OE was a purely G language. So the WS comprised 3 layers of native words:

1st – IE words (mother, father)

2nd – CG words (to rise, to sink)

3d - OE proper (hlaford - lord)

There were some borrowings from the Celtic language, denoting mostly place-names (London, York) and names of rivers (the Thames). After their settlement in Britain the G. tribes came into contact with the Celtic tribes who lived there, but the Celtic borrowings are very few (Loch Ness).

Latin borrowings are:

Latin words borrowed by Ancient G. tribes when they lived on the continent of Europe.

Latin words borrowed by the Anglo-Saxon tribes from Romanized Celts on the British Isle.

Latin words which penetrated into OE after the introduction of Christianity.
Phonetic features
PF are close to those of PG. OE inherited the marks of the consonant shift and the G word-stock. The most significant innovations are found in the system of vowels, which was enriched by specific OE sounds. [æ, y]
Spelling
The main principle of spelling was phonetic. The Latin alphabet was employed with the addition of some runes.

[ on] – thorn

[wyn]

Some Latin letters were modified.

æ




ð










[g]

[g’]

( )

[ ]

between back vowels

[j]

- before or after front vowels


(good)

bry

(bridge)

dra an

(drug)

eard

(yard)




















(green)

li ean

(lie)

da as

(day-days)

bysi

(busy)






Grammar
Grammatically OE was a purely G language, practically without innovations. It was highly inflected. The typical features:

A rich morphological system in nouns, pronouns, adjectives.

A two types declension of adjectives: strong and week

Numerous declensions of nouns

A pure verb system which comprised only 2 tenses. (Present and Past)

Strong verbs were divided into the usual 7 classes and weak verbs built up their past tense and Participle II with the help of the dental suffix.

Have – hæfde – dental suffix

The OE period is called a period of half endings because all the PG inflexions were preserved. OE period lasted up to 1066 (Norman invasion)


^ Middle English

ME began in 1066 and continued up to 1475 (the introduction of printing)
Historical background
ME corresponds to the well developed feudal system. Local dialects were distinguished. There were no common national language. The period after the Norman conquest is the period of French as it was the official language of the country (300 years). English existed only in oral form. That’s why there developed a gap in the written history of the English language.

Later on there appeared some records in local dialects and in the 14th century (at the time of Choser) the London dialect developed as literary language. On the basis of this dialect There developed the national English language. Geographically English spreads to cover the entire territory of England.

Word-stock.

As a result of the Scandinavian Invasion and the Norman conquest the WS lost its purely G. character. There took place numerous borrowings and replacements.

Scandinavian

OE

Taken

niman

Callen

clypian

W-formation was slightly affected by the foreign influence.

Phonetics.

The G. system of w-stress was partly lost due to the addition French borrowings with a different system of w-accentuation and due to the stress shift in the course of the assimilation vowels underwent positional changes in quantity, which undermined the original contrast between long and short vowels. Some OE consonants and consonant clusters gave rise to new kinds of consonants in ME which had not existed before.

E.g. sibilants and affricates.

[ , d , t , ]

Some OE diphthongs (ea, ea, eo, eo) were monophthongized and new diphthongs appeared.

Spelling

It was affected by French spelling. This influence is mainly seen in the introduction of diagraphs (диграф).

th (French)

“oo” (French)

Grammar

G. was considerably simplified. This period is called a period of leveled endings, as the inflexions were greatly reduced especially in the nominal system (nouns, adjectives & pronouns) Now declensions were practically lost; adjectives retained some traces of declension. Great changes took place in the system of verbs, as there began to develop analytical forms.


New English

Began in the 1475. 2 periods:

early New English (15th – 18th centuries)

modern English (18th – up to now)
Historical background
Is the period of growth of capitalism, Renaissance, the growth of the nation and the national language.

Word-stock.

WS grew both due to w-formation and borrowings from the classical and contemporary languages.

Phonetics.

The shift of the w-stress continues and the original Germanic system is distinguished. Great changes especially the Great Vowel Shift affected the vowels and as changes were not reflected in spelling, there developed a gap between the written and spoken words. Consonant changes, such as losses and vocalizations produced similar results.

Kniht – knight

Grammar

There were a few changes in the nominal system Adjectives lost the last traces of declension. Former case relations were performed mostly by analytical means such as prepositions and w-order.

Simplification also affected the verb. Some personal endings were lost and the division of strong verbs into classes was lost as well. Analytical forms continued to develop and embraced both finite and non-finite verbs. There appeared new grammatical categories.

This period is called a period of ^ Lost Endings. (a theory of Henry Sweete).


Вопрос №7 The system of OE vowels. Stressed and unstressed vowels.


I. The system of OE vowels


a

æ

a

e

i

u

y

o

eo

ea

a

æ




e

i

u

y

o

eo

ea


Vowels were pronounced the way they were written with the exception of [ a ] – a nasal

[y,y] – a rounded v.

There was a well-balanced contrast between long and short vowels. At first it may seem that short vowels over numbered long vowels, but there were more long vowel phonemes then short ones, because a, æ, a were positional allophones of one phoneme, the short [a].




a

a

æ




a

The diphthongs [ea, eo] were positional allophones of the short phonemes [e, æ]


Vowels were contrasted as monophthongs and diphthongs

-//- as back and front

-//- rounded and unrounded

Vowels of different tongue-height


^ II. Vowels in unstressed syllables

As to the unstressed vowels, the gradual weakening of vowels in the unstressed syllables has resulted in a smaller number of vowels that could occur in unstressed position (syllables). In these syllables, especially in final position only some short monophthongs could occur.

i

e

a

u

o


In unaccented syllables, especially final, long vowels were shortened, and thus the opposition of vowels – long to short – was neutralized.

e.g. OE nama to the earlier namōn

Some short vowels in final unaccented syllables were dropped. After long syllables, that is syllables containing a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by more than one consonant, the vowels i and u were lost.

(the foll.examples show the retention of u and i after a short syllable, and their loss after a long one)

e.g.OE scipu and scēap (NE ships,sheep, pl from skeapu)

OE werian - dēman (NE wear,deem)

III.Stressed Vowels

Sound changes of stressed vowels took place at every period of the English history. The development of OE vowels consisted of the modification of separate vowels and entire sets of vowels.

The change begins with the growing variation in pronunciation which was followed by the appearance of numerous allophones. After that stage some allophones prevail over the others and a replacement takes place. It may result in splitting of phonemes and their numerical growth. It may also lead to the merging of old phonemes, as their new prevailing allophones can fall together. Most often the change will involve both types of replacement – splitting and merging.

So we deal both with the rising if new phonemes and with the redistribution of new allophones among the existing phonemes. They are:


1) ^ Non-assimilated changes

NA changes – independent or spontaneous changes.

NA changes of vowels in OE were:

palatalization (fronting) and splitting

the development of vowel combinations and diphthongs.

2) Assimilated changes

Assimilated changes were positional. They were combinative changes. They were changes of 2 types.

the 1st type of the v.-change was caused by consonants. Here belongs breaking and diphthongization.

Was caused by the neighboring vowels. (palatal mutation)



Вопрос №8 Independent vowel changes in OE.

Non-assimilated changes

NA changes – independent or spontaneous changes.

NA changes of vowels in OE were:

palatalization (fronting) and splitting

the development of vowel combinations and diphthongs.


1. P. or Sp. concerned the development of monophthongs in OE. It took place in the 5th century. The main direction of the change, which affected the West-Germanic languages, is fronting. This change was independent. The articulation of the vowels was fronted thus

PG a > OE æ

^ Gothic

Scan

OHG

dags

dagr

tag

>

OE

dæ (sg)

da as (pl)







^ Gothic

Scan

OHG

was

vas

was

>

OE

wæs



Gothic t > OE æt


But before a nasal consonant this a changed into the nasal sound a

e.g. G. land > OE land

manna > man

When in the following syllable there was a back vowel [a, o, u] => a>a (remained). This process is called splitting.

e.g. G. dags > OE da as


This change also concerned long vowels

e > a > æ (fronting)

IE PG OE

e.g. OHG tat > OE dæd (NE dud)

Before a nasal consonant this a changed into o

e.g. OHG mano > OE mona


a

æ

o


2. the development of diphthongs can be described as follows.

^ PG Diphthongs

ei

ai

iu

eu

au




PG

ai

>

OE

a

(was monophthongized)

Goth

ains

stains

>

>

OE

an

stan

(one)

(stone)

PG

ei

>

OE

i

(was monophthongized)

PG

au

>

OE

ea







iu

>




io







eu

>




eo




The 1st element weakened.


^ Вопрос №9 Assimilated vowel changes in O.E


Assimilated changes were positional. They were combinative changes. They were changes of 2 types. the 1st type of the v.-change was caused by consonants. Here belongs breaking and diphthongization.

Was caused by the neighboring vowels. (palatal mutation)




Breaking – this term is applied to the change of vowel into a diphthong due to the consonants that followed the vowel. This process was typical of OE. It gave a new set of diphthongs:



eo, ea – these diphthongs appeared as a result of breaking. They were positional allophones of the corresponding short phonemes. (e, æ)

These 2 vowels (e, æ) developed a glide if they were followed by the consonants: h, l, r alone or + another consonant.

Originally this glide was of the nature of w or u sound.

e.g. PG e > OE eo

OHG fehtan > OE feohtan (NE fight)

PG alls > OE æll > eall (NE all)

(fronting) (breaking)

Diphthongization – was caused by the presiding consonant. A glide arose after a palatal consonant: sk’, k’, j

OHG skild > OE scield / scyld (NE shield)

OHG jar > OE r (NE year)

2.^ Palatal Mutation

This type of change affected back vowels affected back vowels. It was caused by the sound [i/j] in the following syllable and resulted in the fronting of the vowel. The influence of i/j sound may also result in the raising of the front vowel. It took place in the 6th century in all the Germanic dialects. In OE it was completed by the time of the 1st written efforts. (7th century).

* means that the word does not exist, it was reconstructed.

EOE sound Sound of the written period

a > æ

a /a > e

æ > e

o > e

o > e

u > y

u > y

ea/eo > ie

ea/eo > ie


Goth. halyan > hællan (NE health)

man (sg) > men

manniz (pl)

taljan > tellan

fotiz > fet (NE feet)

kuning > king

fulljan > fyllan


Palatal Mutation is of special importance because:

1) there appeared new phonemes: y, y - OE phonemes

2) there appeared numerous examples of vowel-variation in the root. These variations are found in the f-building and in the w-building of present day English.

^ The traces of PM in OE

in w-building:

OE adj. lan long

noun len u (< *an i u) length

OE adj. stran strong

noun stren u (< *stran i u) strength

OE adj. full

noun fyllan (<*fuljan) => NE fill

OE noun blod

verb bledan (>*blodjan) => NE bleed

OE noun foda

verb fedan (<*fodian)- verb, class 1, weak v.


The stem-forming suffix of weak verbs of class 1 in Germanic was –i. The structure of the verb comprised a root, a stem-forming suffix and an ending.

Ful + i + an

(root) (suffix) (ending)

fuljan > fuljan > fyllan

After causing PM the sounds i/j could change into e and then disappear. The sound i after a long stressed syllable disappeared, and the sound j disappeared in all cases, bringing about the doubling of the consonant

e.g. satjan > settan


in the declension of nouns

OE Nom. sg. fot - Nom. pl. fet (
top - tep (
mann - men (
mus - mys (
The original ending in the plural form was –iz. It affected the root vowel.


in the degrees of comparison of adjectives.

positive lan

comparative len ra (
superlative len est (
The reconstructed suffix of the comparative degree is ira

superlative degree is ist

e.g. OE ealdira > ieldira > ieldra > yeldra

(wasn’t stable => was monophthongized)


Вопрос № 10 Word-stress in OE

The system of word accentuation inherited from PG and underwent no changes in Early OE.

In OE a syllable was prominent by an increase in the force of articulation. In disyllabic and polysyllabic words the accent fell on the root- morpheme or on the first syllable. Word –stress was fixed; it remained on the same syllable in different grammatical forms of the word and as a rule did not shift in word-building either.

Polysyllabic words, especially compounds, may have had two stresses, chief and secondary, the chief stress being fixed on the first root-morpheme and the secondary stress on the second component.

The grammatical ending –a (Gen.pl) was unaccented.

In words with prefixes the position of the stress varied: verb prefixes were unaccented, while in nouns and adjectives the stress was commonly thrown on to the prefix.

If the words were derived from the same root, word stress, together with other means, served to distinguish the noun from the verb.

e.g. ‘and-swaru n - and-‘swarian v (NE an answer, to answer)


^ Вопрос №11 Peculiarities of OE consonantal system. Common Germanic and specifically OE features.

Consonants were historically more stable then vowels. But it appears that very few noise consonants in OE correspond to the same sounds in PG because in the intervening period most consonants underwent changes: qualitative and quantitative, independent and positional.

^ I Common Germanic features

1)The most remarkable distinctive feature of the Germanic group – the Germanic sound shift. (1ое передвижение согласных). The opposition of consonants in the Germanic languages is the same as in other European languages (voice - voiceless). There is no direct correspondence between certain consonants in the Germanic languages and those found in other European languages of the same word.


2)This correspondence was explained by Jacob Grimm in the early 19th century and is known as the ^ Grimm’s Law. After a long and careful investigation he came to the conclusion that there exists a certain consonant regularity in the chain of consonants. In fact, he was not the first. The first was the Danish scientist Rask, but Grimm was the 1st to call it a la, a typical specific feature inherent in all the Germanic languages.

3)All the plosives of IE shifted into GLs in 3 stages (акты)

1.According to the 1st act of the consonant shift, instead of the IE voiceless plosives (aspirated and non-aspirated) there occurred voiceless fricative consonants in the GLs.

2.According to the 2nd act IE voiced non-aspirated plosives became voiceless plosives. The way of pronouncing a consonant changed, but the place of articulation remained the same.


3.According to the 3d act IE aspirated voiced plosives became voiced fricatives.

Aspirated voiced plosives survived only in Old Indian.

The changes that came about according to the 1st act took place earlier than those of the 2nd, because then the voiceless plosives that appeared under the 2nd act would have changed into the fricatives. There are some reasons to believe that the voiceless plosives changed earlier than the voiced plosives. This can be proved by the fact that the voiceless plosives that appeared in the GL did not change into fricatives later on.


3)But there are some exceptions to the Law:

It has been observed that in some words, where according to the shift, one would expect to find a voiceless fricative in Germanic, a voiced fricative or a voiced plosive is found instead.

Lat – pater OE - fæder

It was explained by the Danish scholar Carl Verner (закон Вернера) in the 2nd part of the 19th century.
4)Verner’s Law
In ancient GLs at that time the stress was free (or movable), fricative consonants became voiced.

[ ] > [ð] depending on their position in the word and depending on the stress also.

All the Germanic fricative consonants became voiced between vowels if the immediately preceding vowel was unstressed and the following vowel was stressed. After the voicing was complete the stress was shifted to the 1sy syllable.

Later on in the GLs [ð] became [d]. this phenomenon is called hardening.

Fæder < faðar


5)After the changes under Grimm’s and Verner’s Law PG had the following two sets of fricative consonants: voiceless[ f, θ, x, s ] and voiced [v, ð, y, z ]

In WG and in Early OE the difference between the two groups was supported by new features. PG voiced fricatives tended to be hardened to corresponding plosives while voiceless fricatives developed new voiced allophones.

In the meantime the PG set of voiceless fricatives which had not turn into plosives, that is [v] and [y] were subjected to a new process of voicing and devoicing. In Early OE they became voiced intervocally and between vowels, sonorants and voiced consonants; they became voiceless initially, finally and next to other voiceless consonants.

6) In all WG languages most consonants were lengthened after a short vowel before [j] . This process is known as “doubling” of consonants, as the resulting long consonants are indicated by means of double letters.

e.g. PG fuljan > OE fyllan (NE fill)

During that process j was lost.

7)In early OE the velar consonants split into two distinct sets of sounds

The velar consonants k, g, x, y were palatalized before and after a front vowel, unless followed by a back vowel.

8)Nasal sonorants were regularly lost before fricative consonants

e.g. Gt uns>OE ūs (NE us)


^ II Old English consonantal system

The system consisted of several correlated sets of consonants. All the consonants fell into noise consonants and sonorants. The noise consonants were subdivided into plosives and fricatives; plosive were further differentiated as voiced and voiceless. The fricative consonants were also subdivided into voiced and voiceless. It is noteworthy that among the oE consonants there were few sibilants and no affricates.

The most universal distinctive feature in the consonant system was the difference in length.


^ Вопрос №12 Traces of Palatal Mutation in Old English

Palatal Mutation

This type of change affected back vowels affected back vowels. It was caused by the sound [i/j] in the following syllable and resulted in the fronting of the vowel. The influence of i/j sound may also result in the raising of the front vowel. It took place in the 6th century in all the Germanic dialects. In OE it was completed by the time of the 1st written efforts. (7th century).

* means that the word does not exist, it was reconstructed.

EOE sound Sound of the written period

a > æ

a /a > e

æ > e

o > e

o > e

u > y

u > y

ea/eo > ie

ea/eo > ie


Goth. halyan > hællan (NE health)

man (sg) > men

manniz (pl)

taljan > tellan

fotiz > fet (NE feet)

kuning > king

fulljan > fyllan


Palatal Mutation is of special importance because:

1) there appeared new phonemes: y, y - OE phonemes

2) there appeared numerous examples of vowel-variation in the root. These variations are found in the f-building and in the w-building of present day English.

^ The traces of PM in OE

in w-building:

OE adj. lan long

noun len u (< *an i u) length

OE adj. stran strong

noun stren u (< *stran i u) strength

OE adj. full

noun fyllan (<*fuljan) => NE fill

OE noun blod

verb bledan (>*blodjan) => NE bleed

OE noun foda

verb fedan (<*fodian)- verb, class 1, weak v.


The stem-forming suffix of weak verbs of class 1 in Germanic was –i. The structure of the verb comprised a root, a stem-forming suffix and an ending.

Ful + i + an

(root) (suffix) (ending)

fuljan > fuljan > fyllan

After causing PM the sounds i/j could change into e and then disappear. The sound i after a long stressed syllable disappeared, and the sound j disappeared in all cases, bringing about the doubling of the consonant

e.g. satjan > settan


in the declension of nouns

OE Nom. sg. fot - Nom. pl. fet (
top - tep (
mann - men (
mus - mys (
The original ending in the plural form was –iz. It affected the root vowel.


in the degrees of comparison of adjectives.

positive lan

comparative len ra (
superlative len est (
The reconstructed suffix of the comparative degree is ira

superlative degree is ist

e.g. OE ealdira > ieldira > ieldra > yeldra

(wasn’t stable => was monophthongized)


Вопрос №13 Nominal grammatical categories in OE

^ I. The Nominal Grammatical Categories

OE was like other G. languages an inflexional synthetic language. Besides inflexions, which were the most productive way of f-building, the following means were employed:

sound interchange in the root

suppletive formations, which were as archaic in OE, as they are today. They were confined to the same parts of speech, as they are today. (personal pronouns and degrees of comparison)

e.g. od – bettra

god – better

OE like other IE Languages had the following nominal gr. categories.

number,

gender,

case

In nouns these categories were independent, in adjectives and pronouns they were dependent as they agreed with the noun.


Gender

In nouns gender was a lexical-grammatical category, that is a word could belong to one gender only, which was not shown by any formal marker and did not depend upon the consideration of sex. It was pure traditional.

There were 3 grammatical forms:

masculine,

feminine,

neutral.

e.g. wif (wife) – neutral

stan (stone) – masculine

tunge (tongue) – feminine

In OE the gender of nouns was mainly indicated by the words defining them (adjective or pronoun).


Number

Nouns, adjectives & pronouns distinguished 2 numbers: singular & plural. But the personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons preserved a set of forms for 2 things – the dual number.

1st p. Ic (sg) wit (dual) we (pl)

2nd p. pu (sg) it (dual) e (pl)


Case

It was a grammatical category.

Nouns had 4 cases:

Nominative

Genitive

Dative

Accusative

Adjectives had 5 cases as well as pronouns:

Nominative

Genitive

Dative

Accusative +

Instrumental.

The Instrumental case of nouns coincided with the Dative case.

e.g. Dat.sg. miclum stane (a large stone - большому)

Inst. Micle stane (большим)

In different nouns the endings of 4 cases varied, but they fell into certain characteristics, known as stems. In OE the stems were singled out traditionally. But in PG the monophological structure of a word comprised 3 components:


Root + stem-forming suffix + ending


e.g. Goth. Dat.pl.

a-stem class fisc – a – m (NE: to the fish)


o-stem class kar – o – m (NE: to the care)

i-stem class gast – i – m (NE: to the guest)

u-stem class sun – u – m (NE: to the sons)

But in OE all this begins to disappear.

OE Acc. pl.

a-stem class fisc

u-stem class sunu


These old prehistoric stems seldom survived in OE. In most cases they disappeared or changed. As they were at the end of the word, that’s on the unstressed position with the shift of the stress to the front syllable, they were reduced. They fused with the root or with the ending.

Consequently the morthological structure of the word in OE comprised 2 components:

the root

the ending

But nouns were subdivided into classes according to the sound, which used to be at the end of the stem. The stem could end in a vowel or a consonant. Nouns whose stem ended in a vowel belonged to the so-called strong declension. Nouns the stem of which ended on “n” or “r” and some others belonged to the so-called weak declension. The vowel declension comprised 4 different paradigms:

the a-stem

the o-stem

the u-stem

the e-stem paradigms.

From the historical point of view the most important of them are:

a-stem

n-stem

root-stem

The root-stem did not belong to either strong or weak declensions, because in those nouns the ending was added directly to the root.


Вопрос №14 OE noun. Classes of nouns and their declensions.


The OE noun had two grammatical categories: Case and Number(singular and plural).

1)Case (4 cases)

Nominative

Genitive

Dative

Accusative

The Instrumental case of nouns coincided with the Dative case.

e.g. Dat.sg. miclum stane (a large stone - большому)

Inst. Micle stane (большим)

In different nouns the endings of 4 cases varied, but they fell into certain characteristics, known as stems. In OE the stems were singled out traditionally. But in PG the morphological structure of a word comprised 3 components:


Root + stem-forming suffix + ending


e.g. Goth. Dat.pl.

a-stem class fisc – a – m (NE: to the fish)


o-stem class kar – o – m (NE: to the care)

i-stem class gast – i – m (NE: to the guest)

u-stem class sun – u – m (NE: to the sons)

But in OE all this begins to disappear.

OE Acc. pl.

a-stem class fisc

u-stem class sunu


These old prehistoric stems seldom survived in OE. In most cases they disappeared or changed. As they were at the end of the word, that’s on the unstressed position with the shift of the stress to the front syllable, they were reduced. They fused with the root or with the ending.

Consequently the morthological structure of the word in OE comprised 2 components:

the root

the ending

But nouns were subdivided into classes according to the sound, which used to be at the end of the stem. The stem could end in a vowel or a consonant. Nouns whose stem ended in a vowel belonged to the so-called strong declension. Nouns the stem of which ended on “n” or “r” and some others belonged to the so-called weak declension. The vowel declension comprised 4 different paradigms:

the a-stem

the o-stem

the u-stem

the e-stem paradigms.

From the historical point of view the most important of them are:

a-stem

n-stem

root-stem

The root-stem did not belong to either strong or weak declensions, because in those nouns the ending was added directly to the root.


Вопрос №15 Traces of the Old English Declension in Modern English


In OE in different nouns the endings of 4 cases varied, but they fell into certain characteristics, known as stems. In OE the stems were singled out traditionally.

Nouns were subdivided into classes according to the sound, which used to be at the end of the stem. The stem could end in a vowel or a consonant. Nouns whose stem ended in a vowel belonged to the so-called strong declension. Nouns the stem of which ended on “n” or “r” and some others belonged to the so-called weak declension. The vowel declension comprised 4 different paradigms:

the a-stem

the o-stem

the u-stem

the e-stem paradigms.

From the historical point of view the most important of them are:

a-stem

n-stem

root-stem

The root-stem did not belong to either strong or weak declensions, because in those nouns the ending was added directly to the root.

The traces of a, n, root-stems are preserved in Modern English.


a-stem

sg.

N

stan (m)

scip (n)




G

stanes

scipes




D

stane

scipe




A

stan

scip













pl.

N

stanas

scipu




G

stana

scipa




D

stanum

scipum




A

stanas

scipu


n-stam root-stem

sg.

N

bera




sg.

N

fot




G

beran







G

fotes




D

beran







D

fet




A

beran







A

foti






















pl.

N

beran




pl.

N

fet




G

berana







G

feta




D

berum







D

fetum




A

beran







A

fet


The system already lacked precision.

Nominative and accusative were synonyms in all types of declensions in the plural in most cases in the singular. Some types of de^ The Old English pronouns
OE pronouns fell into the same classes as NE pronouns, though their number was restricted. They were personal, demonstrative and to a certain extent relative and possessive. They were characterised by the following categories: Gender (3), Number (3) and Case (4).

The demonstrative pronouns had the Instrumental Case and there were a lot of suppletive forms in the system of OE pronouns.

^ 1. OE Personal Pronouns (PPs)
1. Due to the frequency of use, the Pers Ps in Old languages preserved a fairly complete system of inflexions. They distinguished three genders in the third person singular.

hē (masculine)

hēa/hio (female)

hit (neuter)

Four Cases: Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative.

Two numbers in the third person and three numbers in the first and second.




sg

dual

pl

1st

ic

wit

wē

2nd

Þū

зit

зē










(hi/hie)



Declension



sg

dual

pl
Nom
ic

wit

wē
Gen
mīn

uncer

ūre

Dat

mē

unc

ūs

Acc

mē, mec

unc(it?)

ūs


3nd person sg




m




n

Nom

hē




hit

Gen

his




his

Dat

him




him

Acc

hine




hit


The Possessive Pronouns developed from the Genitive Case of the Personal Pronouns.

^ 2. Demonstrative Pronouns (DPs)
Nom sg sē(m тот) seō (f та) Þæt (n тo)

DPs were adj pronouns and they were declined. They had 2 numbers and 5 cases ?(+Instrumental)? They agreed with the noun they modified. In OE they were often used in the weakened meaning and later on developed into the definite article. In Modern English this and that are the descendants from the OE Demonstrative Pronouns of the neuter gender (þis, þæt)?.

^ The development of articles.
The Definite Article originated from the Demonstrative Pr. In OE DPs were usually used in a weakened meaning when they denoted a known thing. Ex. Hē būde wiÞ Þā West sæ. (He lived near that West Sea.) The definite article (Þā) began to loose its forms of declension in Middle English (North – 12 cent, South –beg of the 14cent).

The Indefinite Article originated form the numeral one. Ex. Þa læз Þær ān micel eā. (Then lay there a long river).


Вопрос №17 The OE Adjective. Degrees of comparison.

^ The OE Adjective
The OE adj was declined and it agreed with the noun it modified in Gender, Number and Case. The OE adj had 5 Cases. The OE adj preserved a peculiar Germanic characteristics. It had a 2-fold declension of adjectives: strong and weak. These types of declension functioned differently. The weak type was used when the noun modified by the adj was preceded by a Demonstrative Pronoun (DP) or a Possessive Pronoun (PP) or when the adj was used in the comparative or superlative degree. If the noun modified was not preceded by DP PP then the adj was declined according to the strong type.

The types of declension had a definite meaning. This category expressed by the adj-s was called definiteness/indefiniteness. It survived throughout the ME period. From the point of view of it form the strong adj had either the endings of the noun a-stem, o-stem or the endings of the pronouns. This type of declension is called pronominal. In the weak type the adj-s had the same endings as the weak declension of the noun.


^ Strong Weak

Nom Gen Dat Acc Instr

зōd bera (n-stem) зōdes beran

зōdum beran

зōdne beran

зōde beran

sē зōda bera

Þæs зōdan beran

Þæm ─"─

Þone ─"─

Þy ─"─



^ Degrees of comparison
Degrees of comparison were formed with the help of suffixes: -ira (Gth –iza/oza) (comparative);

-ist (Gth –ista/ōsta) (superlative).They? were no analytical forms.

1. ira/or

2. ist/ost

ira<= iza– rotation or rotacism (Ex. maizo>māra).

Those adj which formed their com. and sup. degrees by the suffix –ira-ist underwent palatal mutation because of the sound i: in the suffix.

Ex. lanз ― lenзra ― lenзest

(lenзira― lenзist – эти формы исчезли)

eald ―ieldra ― ieldest in ModE old― older―oldest


^ Вопрос №18 The OE verb. The verbal grammatical categories.

1. Grammatical categories.

In Finite Forms they were: mood (3), tense (2), number (2), person(3).

1) There were 3 moods: Ind, Subj, Imp. They had approximately the same meanings which they have today with the exception of the Subj Mood, which was frequently used to express a problematic action and was found in indirect speech. It was much more often than in the Present.

2) The OE verbs had 2 tenses: the Present and the Past. The present form was used to denote both tenses present and future (..to denote Pr and Future actions as in other Germanic langeages). There were no analytical forms, only inflexion. Futurity was shown lexically with the help of adverbial modifiers and the context. It is true that in OE there were combinations with the verbs: sculan (shall), willan (will), but they had there own lexical meaning. They were not auxiliary verbs. From these constructions the future forms (the future tense was) were formed later.

3) The category of person was represented only in the Indicative sg and in the Imperative in OE. There was no indication of person in the Ind pl or in the Subj forms. (One form for all persons.) Three persons were distinguished only in the present tense of the Ind Mood.

4) The Ind and Subj had 2 numbers in both tenses. The Imp Mood also distinguished 2 numbers. No dual number. At that time they were ?homonymous? forms. In the Subj M the past and the present pl were the same and also in the sg present and past. In the Indicative they were homonymous forms in the sing and plural.

Lōcian (look) wv2 (weak verb class 2).


Tense
^ Present Sg



Ind

1. lōcie

2. lōcast

3. lōcaÞ

Subj


lōcie

(only one form -present sg)


Imp


lōca

Pl



lōciaÞ


lōcien


lōciaÞ





Tense

Past

Sg

Ind

1. lōcode

2. lōcodes

3. lōcode


Subj


lōcode




Pl
lōcodon

lōcoden






Вопрос №19 The OE Finite and Non-Finite forms.

In Finite Forms they were the following grammatical categories: mood (3), tense (2), number (2), person(3).

1)There were 3 moods: Ind, Subj, Imp. They had approximately the same meanings which they have today with the exception of the Subj Mood, which was frequently used to express a problematic action and was found in indirect speech. It was much more often than in the Present.


2) The OE verbs had 2 tenses: the Present and the Past. The present form was used to denote both tenses present and future (..to denote Pr and Future actions as in other Germanic langeages). There were no analytical forms, only inflexion. Futurity was shown lexically with the help of adverbial modifiers and the context. It is true that in OE there were combinations with the verbs: sculan (shall), willan (will), but they had there own lexical meaning. They were not auxiliary verbs. From these constructions the future forms (the future tense was) were formed later.

3) The category of person was represented only in the Indicative sg and in the Imperative in OE. There was no indication of person in the Ind pl or in the Subj forms. (One form for all persons.) Three persons were distinguished only in the present tense of the Ind Mood.

4) The Ind and Subj had 2 numbers in both tenses. The Imp Mood also distinguished 2 numbers. No dual number. At that time they were ?homonymous? forms. In the Subj M the past and the present pl were the same and also in the sg present and past. In the Indicative they were homonymous forms in the sing and plural.

Lōcian (look) wv2 (weak verb class 2).


Tense
^ Present Sg



Ind

1. lōcie

2. lōcast

3. lōcaÞ

Subj


lōcie

(only one form -present sg)


Imp


lōca

Pl



lōciaÞ


lōcien


lōciaÞ





Tense

Past

Sg

Ind

1. lōcode

2. lōcodes

3. lōcode


Subj


lōcode




Pl
lōcodon

lōcoden





Non-Finite Forms.

The non-finite forms were the Infinitive and two Participles (Part I, Part II).

Inf

Part I

Part II

lōcian (weak v)

wrītan (strong v I)

lōciende

wrītende

(зe)lōcod

(зe)wrīten

The Participle in OE was a verbal adj and it did not possess any verbal categories. But Part I was opposed to Part II in the same way as in Modern Eng. Part I was always active in meaning. Part II was active in meaning in intransitive verbs, but passive in transitive. Ex. Hē wæs зeslegen. (He was killed (passive m-g).Hē wæs cumen. (He has come (active m-g). Part I was formed from the present tense stem (the Infinitive without the ending -an/ian with the help of the suffix -ende. Part II has a stem of its own in strong verbs and the suff –en/n. In weak verbs it was formed by the dental suffix d. (ME –ed). Participles shared the categories of the adj (nominal Gr Categories). They were declined as weak and strong and agreed with the noun in Number, Gender and Case.


The Infinitive. The Inf was a verbal noun. It was also devoid of any verbal gram.category but it had a kind of a noun declension, a sort of reduced Case system. It had 2 forms which roughly corresponded to the Nominative and the Dative Cases of nouns. The so-called Dative Case of the Inf was used with the preposition tō [то] and it was an inflected form.

Ex. tō drincenne (Dat Case – purpose of direction)

Nom drincan

Acc


As for form-building means they were the same as in the nominal system: inflexions, sound interchange, suppletive formations (forms) and the prefix зe. It was sometimes used to help to build Part II. Ex. macian>(зe)macod.

All the verbal forms were build from 4 principle forms of the verb in OE. They were Present, Past sg, Past pl, Participle II. Following the way they built their forms OE verbs fell into 3 subdivisions: strong, weak, minor.(strong, weak verbs –Grim).


^ Вопрос №20 Classes of strong verbs in OE


1.All the verbal forms were built from 4 princi