Реферат: Теоретическая грамматика
Лекции бабушки Шмариной...LECTURE 1.
THEME:Introduction into the science of GRAMMAR.
PLAN.
1. The object ofGrammar. The property of Grammar.
2. Normative& theoretical Grammar.
3. The basicunits of language.
4. Divisions ofGrammar.
5. Language& speech.
6. Theparadigmatic & syntagmatic relations.
1. It'sgenerally known, that language is a system. First of all, the system of
3 constituentparts: PHONOLOGY, LEXICOLOGY & GRAMMAR.
According to thetraditional point of view, phonology & grammar deal with generalcategories, such as vowels, consonants, nouns, words, subjects etc. That meansthat statements, concerning such phenomena may be related to a whole class ofhomogenious things. In other words, such phenomena are of the generalcharacter.
Lexicology, onthe contrary, deals with individual units: words( or linguistic signs).Hence itfollows that lexicological statements are of a special character, for suchstatements refer to every single unit of the vocabulary. E.g.: ,,Dog'' — denotes a certain domestic animal, a friend to a man. It's an individual pet.But if we use the word in the form ,,Dogs"(pl.), it becomes a general pet;that concerns the great number of other words: tigers, students…. Each ofthe above mentioned constituent parts of language is investigated by acorresponding linguistic discipline.
Phonology isdescribed by the science of phonology.The lexical description of language isdescribed by lexicology. Grammar is described by grammar. No language can existwithout vocabulary, but only Grammar gives a human thought a materiallinguistic form, thanks to its abstract character. It's a kind ofself-tuningsystem. Grammar is the result of a long time abstracting work of human mind.Grammar abstracts itself from the particular & concrete and builds itsrules & laws, taking into consideration only the common features of groups& words. That's why Grammar is always compared with Geometry. Abstractcharacter is the 1st characteristic feature of Grammar. Another characteristicfeature of Grammar is Stability, which manifests itself in the fact, that laws& categories of Grammar exist through ages without considerable changes,because Gr. is a product of many epochs.
2. The mainobject of Gr. as a science is the grammatical structure of language, i.e. thesystem of the laws of word changing & sentence building. The rules of Grammargovern the ways in which words are joined together to express feelings,emotions, etc. The Grammar of each language constitutes a system of its own,each element of which stands in certain relations to other elements.
There are twotypes of Grammar:
1. Normative.
2. Theoretical.
All the rules,according to which, people construct their speech are based on NormativeGrammar.
NormativeGrammar is the collection of rules of the given language, which provide thestudents with a manual of practical mastering the Grammar. Thus, NormativeGrammar is of a prescriptive character. Theoretical Grammar is the branch oflinguistics, which studies the forms of the words & their relations insentences in more abstract way, giving the profound description of existinggrammatical laws & tendencies. Every theoretical description presents thestudied parts of language in an isolated form, so as to look inside into theirstructure & expose the mechanisms of their functioning, i.e. the mechanismof the formation of utterances out of words in the process of speaking.
The aim ofTheoretical Grammar is to present a scientific description of a certain systemof a certain language. Thus, Theoretical Grammar is of a descriptive character.
3. The basicunits of language & speech are: the phoneme, the morpheme, the word, thesentence & the supra phrasal unity. The phoneme is the smallest distinctiveunit. That means: if you take two words ,,season'' & ,,reason'', you willsee, they differ in 1one phoneme formally. This
phoneme helpsyou to see, that these two words have different meanings. The morpheme is thesmallest meaningful unit. E.g.: Unhappily. The word is the smallest nominativeunit. The sentence is the smallest communication unit. The sentence is anutterance, that pre-supposes the act of speech; the speaker or writer; thelistener or reader; reality, as viewed by the speaker. In oral speech sentencesare marked by pauses;
in writtensp.--- by full stops. In language, the sentence is an abstract pattern & inspeech, it's a concrete utterance.
The word groupor the word combination or a phrase is a naming unit like a word. But it namesnot separate things, but some relations between the things.
E.g.: a new car.
The supraphrasal unity is a functional unit of speech, which consists of more than onesentence, related syntectically & semantically. In oral speech they are markedby a three unit pause; in written sp.--- by indented lines.
4.Traditionally, the course of Grammar is divided into two parts:
1. Morphology.
2. Syntax.
Morphologyoriginates from the word ,, morpheus'' (the god of dreams). They thought thegod of dreams gave shape to their chaotical visions in sleep. Morphology dealswith forms of words. It includes: parts of speech & their morphologicalcategories. Morphological categories are represented in word forms. It studiesthe system of forms of word change. E.g.: the case & the
number of thenoun; person, number, mood of the verb etc. Syntax includes the sentence &the parts of the sentence; it makes the study of ways of connection words &word combinations in the sentences.
Morphology &Syntax are two independent parts of Grammar and have their own objects ofstudy; they're closely connected, for the morphological characteristics of theword are realized through its syntactical relations with other words.
On the otherhand, the syntactical relations of the word may effect the morphologicalcharacteristics of parts of speech in the course of development of the grammaticalstructure of the language. E.g.: substantivisation of adjectives.
LECTURE 2.
(Continuation).
5. Thedistinctions between language & speech, which were first introduced byFerdinant de Saussure, have since become one of the corner stones of ModernLinguistics.
,, Language is asystem''.
It's thephonological, lexical & grammatical system, which lies at the basis of allspeaking. It's the sourse, which every speaker & writer has to draw on ifhe wants to be understood by other speakers of the language. Speech, on theother hand, is the manifestation of language or its practical use by variousspeakers & writers of the given language. Thus, what we have before
us in oral orwritten form as material for analysis is always a product of speech.
There is noother way for linguists to get to language than through speech. Languagecharacterizes a certain human community. It's used in the community; it'sunderstood by all the members of the community; so it's called a social code.And by its nature, Language is social. Speech, on the contrary, is individual,but it's based upon language which exists in the minds of all speakingcommunity. We can't see language, neither hear it. We can get to it onlythrough speech. As we're concerned with Grammar only, we don't have to dealwith phonological
and lexical partsof language. We shall only concentrate on the system of Grammar & itsmanifestation. Language & Speech are closely connected & intermingled.They may come a unity. Language is realized through Speech. The life oflanguage consists in oral & written intercourse within 2 or more people.This linguistic intercourse is manifested through connected communicationschiefly in the form of sentences, though not always so complete &well-arranged. The object in teaching Grammar is not only rules, which must beobeyed if one wants to speak & write the language correctly. It also aimsat finding out what is actually said & written by the speakers of thelanguage.
According toFerdinant de Saussure: ,, Language is a treasure, formed by way of speakingpractice & preserved in the minds of the people who belong to a certainspeaking community." ,, Язык — это клад, отлагаемый в памяти всех членoв данногоязыкового коллектива." It's a system of 3 systems (lex.,gram., phon.), potentially existing in every mind & at the same time, inthe minds of the whole speaking community, for, language can't exist wholly inone individual.
6. There'recertain relations within the language. They say, the language is a system ofparadigmatic relations. We mean the structure of various means & theclasses they form. E.g.: boy, boys, boy's, boys'. They are written down with avertical way. Paradigmatic relations are vertical. Speech is a system ofsyntagmatic relations. They're always linear (horizontal).
Syntagmaticchains — we mean the combinations, the same units form in the process ofcommunication. E.g.: voice of phoning machine.
Originally, thedifferentiation between paradigmatics & syntagmatics was based onrecognition of the two linguistic planes:
1. The plane oflanguage.
2. The plane ofspeech.
Language planesare structured paradigmatically, speech ones — syntagmatically. It's generallyknown, that every linguistic unit ends in 2 types of systemic relations at atime. If certain units, equal in rank are correlated by means of an opposition(E.g.: long--longer--longest), we say they have paradigmatic relations, thatare usually vertical & imply the choice when they're realized in actualspeech (E.g.: I'm not going to stay here any longer.), the element that standsin paradigmatic relations. But they're substitutable. E.g.: 1). The way to thestation is very long.
2). Which is thelongest river in the world? Opposition relations are called associative.Associative groups exist in the vertical way. If linguistic elements appear ina contrast linear pattern, we say they have syntagmatic relations. They form asyntagneme, which may comprise:
phonemes,morphemes, words, phrases, clauses. Syntagmatic relations can be observed notonly at syntax level, they're not associative, but constructive, for they'rebased on the linear confrontation of the language units. Paradigmaticrelations, which are typical of language, may be of different kinds: 1. Theymay be based on the similarity of the semantic features (synonymous &antonymous groups). E.g.: nice, pretty… 2. They may be based on thesimilarity of the formal characteristics of linguistic elements. Such relationsexist between the members of a paradigm, which consists not of the units, butof those paradigmatic markers, which distinguish one form of the unit from itsother forms. E.g.: go, goes, will go, has gone.
3. At the levelmajor syntax we may also observe sentence paradigms, which are calledtransforms. They are united by a common meaning. E.g.: The work has been done,we went home. The work done, we went home. After the work was done, we wenthome. Syntagmatic relations exist between the elements linearly ordered. Thatis between phonemes, words etc. Linearity is the main factor for syntagmatic relations.Standing together in linear order, linguistic elements can make up a unity. Butlinearity is not the only ground, on which all syntagmatic relations areestablished. According to the logical approach, the differentiation is madebetween the 3 types of syntagmatic relations:
1. Independence.2. Dependence. 3. Interdependence.
There are:combinational syntagmatic relations, which reveal relatedness of elements &non-combinational ones.
Combinationalsyntagmatic relations can be subdivided into:
1. Collocational(lexico-semantic).
2. Colligational(grammatical).
Collocationalrelations are not of a grammatical character, they're of lexicosemanticcharacter; the collocated elements are located together in the same lineararrangement (,,to speak fluently).
Colligationalrelations are based on the morphological & syntactical peculiarities of theword (,,to tell him"; ,,to say nothing").Non-combinational relationsare cohesive. They may be anaphoric & cataphoric.
Non-combinationalrelations are typical of the syntax of the text, which mean that neitherphrases, nor sentences can be formed on the basis of such relations.
They'respecifically textual & cohesive. They appear between sentences & supraphrasal unities. Linearity is not essential for such occasion. The cohesive relationsappear between the elements which are usually in distant positions. Theanaphoric relations show that an element refers to its antecedent in theleft-hand side (retrospective relations). The cataphoric relations indicatethat antecedent is located in the right text contest (prospective relations).
E.g.: ,, Hehated interference especially in his work & beyond everything he hatedinterfering women. The more he thought of it, the angrier he became."
LECTURE 3.
THEME:Morphology.
PLAN.
1. Aspects ofMorphology.
2. Thedefinition of the morpheme.
3. The allo-emicprinciple.
4. The types ofmorphemes.
5. Types ofword-form derivation.
1. Grammar hastwo constituent parts: Morphology & Syntax.
Morphology dealswith morphological units (the morpheme & the word); word-forms, whichsignify some general conceptual notions (grammar. meanings, grammatical forms,grammatical categories). It also studies the parts of speech. Morphology hascertain branches: one of them is morpho-phonemics, which describes thephonological representation of meaningful morphemes.
E.g.:morphophonemic vowel interchange in «ring — rang — rung» plays adefinite part in the system of form-building. The vowel interchange in thewords «food -feed is a means of word-building.
Another branchof Morphology — morphemics deals with the description of the morphologicalmodels of the language. In other words, it describes the morpheme structure,the ways of their location in the units of high level. E.g.: 2. Even casual comparison of such word formas dogs, boys, with the
correspondingdog, boy, will show that the 1st set may be split into 2 grammaticallysignificant elements (<dog>+<s>), which, on the one hand, conveythe meaning, and on the other, cause the certain agreement between the words ina sentence. Thus, we say: „The dog sleeps in a kennel“, but „Thedogs sleep in a kennel. The form “dog» can't be divided into futuregrammatically significant elements. Further division may be onlyphonologically. The described minimal grammatical units are called morphemes.They are delimited by comparing word form with one another and by singling outthe recurrent pieces that compose them. A word may consist of 1 or more morphemes,each morpheme them conveys a particular lexical or grammatical meaning.
The morpheme — is the smallest meaningful, further indivisible recurrent component of a wordor a word form.
3. If theapproach from the point of view of speech, we can observe the followingphenomenon: the morphemes like words may exhibit different forms in the processof speaking. It depends on their position within the word. E.g.: the regularformative of the plural number morpheme «s» may be represented in speechin different ways.
In languageInspeech
[s] — book
- (e)s[z] — boys
[iz] — boxes
Allomorphs arespeech variants of morphemes.
At the basis ofallo-emic elements lies the division into language and speech. The termmorphemes stands for the whole grammatically relevant class of forms. Theybelong to language. It is an abstract entity which expresses particulargrammatical meaning. Em-terms denote generalized invariants of language,characterized by a certain functional status ( Allo-morphes denote the concretemanifestation of invariants, of the generalized units, dependent on the regularcolligation with other elements of the language.Invariants are abstract. Theallo-morphs (or variant morphemes ) like [s], [z], [iz] are phonologicallypredictable, but we have many examples of allo-morphs, which can't beexplained by usage of speech criteria. Thus, the English plural form of theword «ox» — «oxen» is grammatically parallel to«dogs». «En» is an
irregular formof the plural number. There are other irregular forms: «children»,«geese». Professor Robins considered them to be allo-morphs of theplural number morphemes. According to the tradition, which goes back to PaniniGrammar, such specific forms as… are considered by linguists as havingany form (0 form ) of plural number.
There is anothergroup of words which have a specific morphemic structure: E.g.:«man — men», «tooth — teeth». The plural forming morpheme isrepresented not by any recurrent formative like [s], but a process of rootvowel interchange. E.g.: [ж] — [e] etc. We are dealinghere with infix morphemes. Such word forms are rarely survivals of the specificmorphemic structure of Old English. To simplify the complicated
system ofanalysis, professor Ilysh V.A. and others refer all the speech exhibits of theplural number morphemes to the allo-morphs of the plural number morphemes,which graphically may be depicted as following: Language Speech plural numbermorphemes [s], [z], [iz], [ш], [ж]--[e], [f]--[vz],[u]--[i]. The analysis and classification ofdifferent phonological forms in which morphemes appear, both in individuallanguages and in languages in general is called Morphonology, which is the sameas morphophonemics. When discussing the different forms of the English pluralnumber morphemes we applied the morphophonological analysis.
4. There are twocriteria in classifying morphemes:
1). Positional
2). Functinal(semantic).
According topositional criterion morphemes are divided into: root morphemes and affixalmorphemes (affixes,{prefixes, infixes, suffixes}). In other words, rootmorphemes are called free morphemes, while affixal are bound morphemes. A freemorpheme is vand?.. a bound morpheme is one, that must appear with at least oneother morpheme, bound or free. E.g.: «work»+«ed». Rootmorphemes are unlimited in number. Affixes are bound morphemes, they arelimited in number, and may be exhaustedly elisted. Some words have more thanone morpheme, they are compound words. E.g.: " bird-cherry ",«scare-crow». In English the majority of roots are free. Butnevertheless there are bound root morphemes. They are the following.
E.g.: receive,conceive
retain, contain
transfer, refer.
Affix is a termdenoting recurrent formative morphemes, other than roots. From the point ofview of formal presentation we distinguish: overt [ouvit] and covert [kA vit].Overt morphemes are represented explicitly: «retell»,«asked»; covert morphemes coincide with 0(zero morpheme). Everymorpheme is the smallest meaningful unit, thus «ed» conveys themorpheme of Past tense. We should differentiate form-building morphemes (thatare grammatical) and word-building
morphemes (theyare lexical). E.g.: movement, outline — word-building morphemes asked, asks,getting — form-building morphemes 5. Form-building morpheme is called wordchanging. Modern English extremely poor according to the word-changing, butthere are some.
1). Affixation.
It is the use ofepithets. E.g.: «bus» — «buses».
Only Suffixationis used in modern English. Prefixation was productive in old English period.For the formation of perfect participle
2). SoundInterchange.
Vowelinterchange Consonant interchange
3). Supplativeforms
«bad»- «worse» — «worst»
«go» — «went» — «gone»
«be»,«is», «are», «am» — «was», «were»- «been».
All of 1), 2),3) — belong to the syntactic way of form-building.
4). Analyticalforms are particular word-combinations, made up of an auxiliary or a notionalword.
LECTURE 4.
Analytical formsare very productive in modern English
Grammar dealswith form-building .
is.....................................................ing
have................................................enframes
was..................................................ed
continuousmorphemes
The matter is,that the analytical ???????? (can be put) consist of two meaningful morphemes.Analytical morphemes are not free word combination like «a red rose»,neither are phraseological units like " red tape"(burocracy).Analytical forms can't be compared with words, they are word forms likesynthetic forms, performing a definite grammatical function. The word
1. Thedefinition of the word.
2. Thecharacteristic features of the word.
3. The twoplanes of the word.
The word is themain object of lexicology as well. It is not easy to give rigorous definitionof the word. Since it is very complex and many sided phenomenon. The term«word» denotes the basic unit of a given language, resulting from theassociations of a particular meaning with the particular group of sounds,capable of the particular grammatical employment. Arnold, «The
Englishword». This working definition of the word implies that the word issimultaneously
a semantical andgrammatical unit. There are many definitions of the word and none of them aregenerally accepted. The word is considered to be the minimal potentialsentence, the minimal free linguistic form, the elementary component of thesentence, the sound symbol, the meaningfully integral and immediatelyidentifiable unit.
The difficultyin defining the word compel some linguists to exclude the word from the basicunit of the language. L. Bloomfield school in US. That school linguistsconsider the morpheme and the phoneme to be the basic units of linguisticdescription, for the phoneme can be easily isolated from the context thanks toits minimal elementary segmental character. They consider the phoneme to be theminimal formal segment of language and the morpheme to be the ultimate
meaningfulsegment. The main drawback of descriptive linguistics is that they approach thedefinition of the linguistic units on a formal basis. The other linguists cameto the conclusion, that such units must be defined by taking into considerationtheir formal and functional (semantic) features.
2. In actualspeech people experience no difficulty in separating one word from another.Traditionally, linguists point out isolatebility as the most characteristicfeatures of the word. One word can form a sentence («Fire!»,«Thanks!»,...). Another characteristic feature of the word is its
uninterruptibilityor indivisibility. Even if you take compound words, such as«blackberry», «blue-eyed», you won't be able to insertanother word in the middle of this compound word. Third feature is a certainlooseness in the sentence, i.e. that you may place the word in different partsof the sentence. E.g.: «The bat flew down.»=«Down flew thebat.»But still, don't forget, that the English word-order is rigid unlikethe Russian word order. Russian language is a highly developed morphologicalsystem. The set looseness is marked in writing by the graphic form of the wordwith certain spaces between the words.
In oral speech,every word is separated from its neighbours by one unit pause. Some difficultyis paused by the application of the term «word». Some linguistsregard such group of words as work, worked, is working as one word. The wholegroup can't be used as a unit of speech, for the unit must belong both tolanguage & speech. Of all the group, only the element «work» canbe regarded as an objective unit of the language. All the grammeme are calledlexeme. «A lexeme is a group of word forms, united by the common lexicalmeaning, but having different grammatical meaning.»
If we take agroup of words, united by the common grammatical meaning, we shall get agrammeme.
E.g.: sleeps,reads, tries, fucks — Grammeme.
A number ofelements of the lexeme may vary from 1 («must») to many.
E.g.: Thelexeme, represented by the word «wright» Þ containsÞ 94 elements, expressed by 64 forms.
The number ofwords in a grammeme is practically limitless. But the gammeme having themeaning only Past tense, indicative mood, plural number, not perfect, notcontinuos aspects, contains only 1 word: were .The word is a nominative ( naming) unit of language .It enters the vocabulary as its elementary componentindivisible into smaller segments.The word is used for the formation of thesentence. The word is the basic unit of the language, which occupies the keyposition in the language. It's universal in its character. It is capable ofperforming any function in the language: nominative, significant,communicative & pragmatic. The functional sphere of the word is very wide.It may represent a morpheme ( free place ), a nominative sign ( desk ), A partof a word group ( a big fire ) & a sentence ( Fire! ).
3. A word is alinguistic sing. A linguistic sign is a bilateral entity, having it a content& formal side, which correlates with the concept & may indirectlyreflect the objects & phenomena of objective reality ( extralinguisticreality ). Not all the linguistic signs have reference to the outer world.Being a bilateral linguistic sign, the word is characterized by 2 planes :
The plane ofcontent
The plane ofexpression.
bombthe plan ofexpression
the plane ofcontent
The first &the second are the dialectical unity of form and content. In the plane ofexpression, the word has its material representation. In oral speech it isrepresented acoustically by a group of sounds, in written speech — graphically.The plane of content includes the lexical meaning of word. The word exists intwo dimensions, namely as a virtual polysemantic sign of the vocabulary, and asan actual sign, used in speech.
The virtual sideof the language sign exists in the sphere of language. It is an unrealizedword, while the actual side of the word belongs to the syntagmatic sphere ofspeech.
LECTURE N 5.
Theme:Grammatical categories.
Grammarabstracts itself from particular meanings of words and deals with the mostgeneralized meanings, that may be proper to big groups of words with differentlexical meanings.
In logic, themost general notions reflecting the most general properties of some phenomenaare called categorial notions ( or categories ). The most general meanings inLinguistics are regularly expressed through the system of the paradigmaticallyorganized word forms and are interpreted as categorial meanings.
According to thegeneral methodological law, every content must have a certain material form of expression.If we take a generalized meaning of plurality we can find its materialimplementation in many word forms such as: streets, cars, houses, girls,students which make up a grammeme. The grammatical phenomena, like the word inlexicology are also characterized by the 2 planes: the plane of content (meaning ) & the plane of form ( expression ).
Since themeaning of plurality is represented in many word forms, we may interpret it asa grammatical meaning & the word forms, representing it materially arecalled grammatical forms.
- Sthe plane of grammatical expression
- pluralitythe plane of grammatical meaning
The unity of thegrammatical meaning with a grammatical form may testify to the existence of thegrammatical category, but to establish grammatical category, we must find asystem of paradigmatically correlated grammatical forms.
E.g.: boys canbe correlated with boy's Since Within the noun we may come across the followingparadigm, expressing the generalized notion of number.
E.g.: street — streets; ox — oxen; foot — feet.
If we analyzethe opposed forms street — streets, we may observe, that they are grammaticallyopposed, for 1 expresses singularity, the other — plurality. The 2 opposedmeanings are united by a more abstract meaning of noun. This highly abstractmeaning of noun represented by the paradigmatic correlation of 2 grammaticalforms makes up a grammatical category. Likewise, we may establish the existenceof the category of tense of the verb, but it will be represented by the grammaticalopposition of 3 grammatical forms & grammatical meanings.
E.g.: ask — asked- will ask
present pastfuture
The oppositionof grammatical forms always represents the opposition of grammatical meanings.
The correlatedelements of the grammatical opposition must posses common features &differential ones, i.e. one form must be unmarked, other forms must be markedby a certain morpheme.
«Agrammatical category is a unity of a generalized grammatical meaning, with aset of paradigmatically correlated grammatical forms ».ProfessorSmirnitsky's Postulates of the Grammatical Category. Five postulates of theexistence of grammatical categories. By this he defines grammatical category ina very convincing & exhausting way.
I. Anygrammatical category must be represented by, at least, 2 grammatical forms.There're no languages in which you could find only one case form or one form ofnumber. The minimal set of paradigmatically correlated forms is 2forms.Category of case in English is represented by the opposition of 2 forms (Common — Possessive ), Russian — 6 forms ( Падежи ).
II. Nogrammatical category can be represented by all the word forms of the word. Ifsome grammatical meaning is inherent in all the word forms of the given word,we shall deal here not with a grammatical category but with lexico-grammaticalcategory. Such is the Category of Gender in Russian. We can't change the nounaccording to the category of Gender, i.e. masculine, feminine, neuter.The setmeanings of Gender are inherent in certain nouns. Some nouns belong tomasculine gender, other — to feminine, and still other — neuter.
E.g.: дом, улица, небо
III. One wordform may combine different grammatical categories. E.g.: the form "speaks " combines 5 categories ( grammatical meanings ) — tense, 3rdperson, singular number, indicative mood, active voice.
IV. No word formcan combine 2 categorial meanings ( grammatical meaning of the same category )of 1 and the same category. You can not find singular and plural in one wordform simultaneously.
E.g.: boys,boy
V. Every wordform must represent at least one categorial form or belong to some grammaticalcategory. There are no word forms without grammatical categories. In modernlinguistics, it's generally accepted, that a grammatical category isrepresented by an opposeme of, at least, 2 forms. It follows from the theoryworkedout by linguist Nicolas Treubetskoy about binary opposition in Linguistics.He applied the opinion to phonology, but lateron he thought, that this methodworks very well in other spheres of Linguistics.Different parts of speech havedifferent N. Of grammatical categories.
E.g.: theEnglish verb is the most developed system from point of view of categories.Some think the verb has 6 grammatical categories, others ð 8grammatical categories.
Tense
Person
Number
Mood
Voice
Aspect
Taxes
English noun has2 categories ( number, case ). Adjective ð degree of comparison.
LECTURE N6.
3. CharlesFriese's theory of the classes of words.
Every languagecontains ______ of words. When describing them, we should analize whether oneword separately or unite them into classes possessing more or less commonfeatures. Linguists make use of both the approaches. A dictionary usuallydescribes individual words. Grammar mostly deals with clases of words,traditionaly called parts of speech. The term " part of speech " isconventional. The well-known linguist Shcherba Z.V., Professor Smirnitskyprefer to use lexico-grammatical categories "; Professor Blokh operateswith the term " grammatical classes of words "; Charles Fries calls thesame thing " positional classes "; Professor Ilyish, the linguistsHeimovich & Rogovskaya speak about " lexico-grammatical classes ofword ". Up to this day, there's no generalagreement among the grammariansas to the number of the parts of speech, especially contraversial is theproblem of delimiting parts of speech оn the basis ofsome common principles.
The 1st tointroduce words into classes was Aristotle, who lived in between 384 — 322 B.C.Being a founder of logic Aristotle equated the relation of ideas in human mindwith the relation of word in speech and established grammatical categories interms of logic. He introduced in Grammar the notion of " subject "and «predicate ». His criterion for descriminating between parts ofwas the ability of words to express the parts oflogical proposition, i.e. thesubject, the predicate and the copula.
Accordingly,Aristotle established 3 parts of speech: the name, the verb and theconjunction. By the " name " he meant the word which can perform thefunction of the subject. The " verb " represented the predicate. Andby the conjunction he denoted all the functional words, such as prepositions,articles, conjunctions, particles.
Aristotleteaching was later continued by other scholars.Still the confusion of Grammarwith the categories of logic remained.2.In the history of the part of speechthere have been different criteria, according to which the part of speech havebeen singled out. Fortunatov concidered the parts of speech to be theformalgrammatical classes. His classification was purely morphological. Hedivided all the words into changeble and unchangeble. To the first group herefered noun, verb, adjective.
Others wereunchangeble.
Shakhmatove'sclassification followed the syntactical principle. It proved to be one-sided.
The principles,оn which classifications are usually based nowadays,are 3 in number: meaningformfunction.
The meaning ofthe words, belonging to the class of the noun. The abstract meaning hasthingness ( or substance ). The meaning of thingness applies to the meaning ofthe noun and constitutes the meaning of the noun as part of speech. Similarly,the meaning of the verb as a part of speech is action or process. The generalmeaning of a part of speech is neither lexical nor grammatical, but it isconnected with both and we call it lexico-grammatical meaning. In the classicaltheory of the part of speech a semantic feature was a leading criteria inestablishing a part of speech. In the structural linguistics (Ferdinand deSausur ) the semantic principle was ignored ( Charles Fries ). There wereFriese's supporters in Soviet Linguistics as well ( Leontyev, Shapkin etc. ).Their delimiting the classes of words. Besides, the words of different parts ofspeech are distinguished through their morphological features, their forms,their morphemes. The second principle of delimiting parts of speech is _____ ofform. Grammatical forms represented grammatical categories. Thus, the noun ischaracterized by the categories of number and case; the verb — by thecategories of tense, mood, voice, aspect, person and number.
By function wemean the syntectical properties of a certain class of words, what part it playsin the sentence.
The noun isusually preceded by adjective, prepositions, pronouns, articles and is followedby the verb. We call it combinability.The most convenient for us is theclassification of part of speech, proposed by Khaimovich and Rogovskaya.According to them, we single out a certain class of words. We must take intoconsideration the following principles of this classification: Itslexical-grammatical meaning.
Itsmorphological features:
itsform-building
itsword-building
Combinability.
Its function inthe sentence.
In accordancewith these principles, the following parts of speech are distinguished inModern English:
1). Nouns; 2).Adjectives; 3). Pronouns; 4). Numerals; 5). Verbs; 6). Adverbs; 7). Adlinks(thecategory of state); 8). Modal words(perhaps, of course, certainly, evidently,etc.); 9). Prepositions; 10). Conjunctions; 11). Particles;
12).Interjections; 13). Articles; 14). Response words.
3. Charles Frieswas a representative of the American Descriptive school. He applied only 1principle in delimiting parts of speech — the principle of function. Hisclasses of words can be hardly called parts of speech. He calls them«positional classes» that are established by the methods ofdistribution & substitution. His principle is synthetical. According tohim, the speaker gets sygnals of common classes of word from the position, theword occupies in the sentence. The meaning of the word being unnecessary.
E.g.: Wogglesugged diggles.
The sygnals ofstructural meaning( thingness or action) are called by Fries «Formalclasses». He doesn't deny the term «parts of speech». Further,he establishes the words, that are characterized by a similar set of positions,which enables him to refer certain words to this or that common class. For thispurpose, he takes the minimal utterance( or frames).
Class 1 Cl. 3
Frame A: Theconcert was good.
Cl.2
Frame B: Thecleark remembered the text.
Cl.4
Frame C: Theteam went there.
So, heestablished 4 classes of notional words & 15 classes of functional ones. Heconsidered his classification to highly objective, because it is structural.Later оп — 64 classes of functional words He himselfcalls the classes — «positional classes of words». Parts of speechare subdivided further, they're objective to sub-catigo-rization. Nouns: common& proper; countable & uncountable; abstract nouns… Verbs: notional& functional;...
LECTURE 7.